Kingdom of Chu's Military- Warring States Period: 楚国军事- 战国时期

This is an excerpt from a far larger chapter that is dedicated to the kingdom of Chu

in the Warring States period.

The military of the Chu state was a sizeable and formidable force, adapted to the geography of its southern domain: however it was often severely overstretched due to the very sparsely populated nature of the south. Chu armies were characterized by a strong emphasis on infantry and, most notably, the massed crossbow. The state was an early adopter and innovator of crossbow technology in general, and even in more esoteric developments was where the first repeating crossbow designs emerged- dated to the Warring States period. In battle formations, crossbowmen could unleash powerful volleys to disrupt enemy charges and provide cover from a reliably safe distance during sieges. 

Chu also greatly favored crossbows- and together with the later states of Han and Wei became eager adaptors of massed crossbows in battle.

By the late Warring State's era both Qin and Chu had vast legions of armored crossbowmen.

It became a highly favored weapon by all the greatest kingdoms of this age.

With only 2 weeks of training or less, rows of crossbowmen could deliver volleys that ends the life of whole vanguards of aristocrats who had been trained in weapons their whole lives. China's iron age began much later than many of the other ancient civilizations, began in only around 9th century BC, however by the 4th century BC they have discovered steel forging techniques with temperatures reaching 1537 Celsius and casting liquefied steel weapons en mass with molds. This technique would not be matched in Europe until 1800 years later. 

Chu Repeating Crossbow- one of the earliest dated repeating crossbows ever found. Such weapons does not have enough penetration powers and were likely used as hunting tools for nobles- and in later centuries (with poison dipped bolts) did became home defense weapons. These earlier configurations were largely still more- bow than later iterations, and was essentially a retractable bow laid out on the flat and pulled back by pulling the bowstring while holding the front via the grip. The magazine does facilitate rapid reload however.

WELL- VERSED SIEGECRAFT

Chu also developed significant capabilities in siege warfare, employing a variety of engines to overcome the walled cities of its rivals. Historical and archaeological evidence points to the use of battering rams (chui che), mobile siege towers (lú gōngchē), and massive, frame-mounted bed crossbows (chuángzi nǔ) capable of launching heavy bolts to clear defenders from battlements.

Foldable "Cloud Ladder" with hooked grapple for scaling walls. By this era Chu had became a very advanced state in siegecraft.

Observation carts had been recorded in this era.

Later 3 Bowed Ballista: 三弓弩 used in the later Song dynasty. However even by the early Warring States period- Chu had already fielded a simpler version of them that resembled large crossbows. Large mounted crossbows known as "bed crossbows" were used as early as the Warring States period. Mozi described them as defensive weapons placed on top of the battlements. The Mohist siege crossbow was described as humongous device with frameworks taller than a man and shooting arrows with cords attached so that they could be pulled back.

The first traction trebuchets (Mangonels) were also recorded and fielded in sieges of this era- also in the records involving Mozi and Chu manuvers against its rivals. In time more complex version of such mangonels would also be fielded, including versions where 5 throwers were attached to 1 swivel that could be turned to face various section of the enemy at once. Mangonel had several advantages over counter weight trebuchets of the medieval eras in that they were far easier to produce and also assemble on the field (attested in their uses by the cavalry- dominated Avars who likely brought them to Europe)- their downside consisted of shorter ranges and the diminished efficacy that are pegged to the crew's stamina.

CONTINUAL NAVAL DEVELOPMENTS

By the late Warring States period Chu was able to contend against the best naval powers in the region and came out victorious.

Complementing its land forces, Chu leveraged its position along the Yangtze River to build a powerful riverine navy. This naval power was crucial for controlling the extensive waterways of its territory, transporting troops, and projecting force against rivals along the coast, culminating in the annexation of the coastal state of Yue in the 4th century BCE after overcoming the once far better naval power upon the water itself. 

CHARIOTRY

In contrast to its infantry and naval strength, Chu's chariotry was often considered moderate and less capable compared to that of northern states like Jin. The 3 main Chu armies of left, center, and right's elite core were chariot divisions and they were manned by sons of the royal clan. The central army of Chu also recruited its soldiers from the sons of the royal clan, was well-equipped, and represented the elite of the Chu forces. Although it was able to prove its worth during the 1st great period of prominence under the dynamic King Zhuang of Chu (often said to be the 3rd great Hegemon of the Spring and Autumn period) especially in his decisive Battle of Bi which came like a wrecking ball. However during Chu's period of contraction by the late Spring and Autumn periods (and after King Zhuang's wake) at the Battle of Yanling in 575 BCE, poor coordination between Chu's chariots and infantry contributed to its decisive defeat. 

By the Warring States period, Chu was said to possess "ten thousand chariots." Each chariot was usually accompanied by a certain number of foot guards called  tubing 徒兵 (lit. "follower guards"/ "Trabants," or "ground troops" lujun 陆军) , it would be their job to exploit any breakthroughs the chariots made. However the number of infantry guards were not fixed. They ranged between 10 and 100. Ten footmen was the usual number of troops accompanying a chariot during the early Spring and Autumn period, and 75 was a common size in the late Warring States period for light chariots. The army of Chu- beside 75 was also known to have used 100 persons per chariot, but this was not necessarily adopted by other states. The chariot's prominence were decidedly displaced by organized blocks of disciplined infantry and crossbowmen, a trajectory that in fact well favored Chu. 

Late Spring and Autumn/ early Warring States era chariots from one of the vassals of Chu, by this time both the horses and the riders were almost always heavily armored, with thick lacquered hide armors protecting the horse's front and sides heavy armor protecting the riders. 

However, archaeological finds demonstrate that Chu and its vassals possessed high-quality military equipment. The tomb of Marquis Yi of the allied state of Zeng (also known as Sui), dated to around 433 BCE, contained an arsenal of over 4,700 weapons. The finds included suits of exceptionally crafted lacquered leather armors, bronze helmets, and even in fact chariot barding for the quadriga horses, many of which were produced in Chu arsenals. This discovery reveals the advanced panoply available to elite Chu-allied forces, indicating a capacity for well-equipped and potent military units despite any tactical shortcomings in chariot warfare and the need to often police and intercept enemies in a sparsely populated domain.

Charioteer's heavy armor- black lacquered hide stitched together with red silk. Hide armor during this period varied from ox hide and more expensive hides such as rhino that are almost definitely reserved for the aristocrats. The boots of some aristocrats are fashioned from white deer skin.

This bronze blade was once attached to the axle of a chariot wheel, and is known as a wei. It was used to keep enemy foot soldiers away from the chariot.

COMMANDERIES- THEATER COMMANDS

Map: Geography & Trajectory- given the radically varied mountainous terrain of southern China compared to the central plains- traffic is strongly channeled along a main lateral body of water in the great Yangtze river and its hinterlands. Any power that controlled the Yangtze and the various gauntlets and lakes becomes the master of dictating initiative in the south. 

In military matters, Chu divided many regional military commands that covers several nearby territories. Commanderies~ or Jun 郡 in Chu were different from the commanderies of later, fully imperial dynasties which were more hybrid in military and civil matters. By contrast: Chu Juns were primarily large, localized military districts or frontier defense zones established along the marches or heavily militarized borders, particularly to the north against rival states in the Central Plains. Insight: The Noble Title: Jūn (君) meaning "Lord" and the Administrative Unit: Jūn (郡) meaning commandery or prefecture are of different characters.

The state-run handicraft industry of the Chu State was managed by an official known as the Gong Yin, or sometimes Da Gong Yin (Minister of Works). This position, under the direct control of the royal court, oversaw the various artisans responsible for Chu's highly developed craft production. While pre-Qin texts identify a similar role as Sikong (Minister of Works) and most central plains states during the Spring and Autumn period used the title Gongzheng (Master of Works), Chu maintained its distinct term for this vital economic administrator. The Gong Yin's sphere of influence encompassed the workshops that produced many of the goods for which Chu became famous, including intricate lacquerware and bronze vessels. 

BROADSWEEPING- COUNTY MAGISTRATES 

Because of the extreme span of the Chu territories- Chu opted for appointed local magistrates yet they were defanged so as to rely on central authority for protection. As Chu expanded its territory, newly annexed lands were typically organized into xian instead of being granted as hereditary fiefs. In local governance, the Chu State pioneered the establishment of counties, or Xian 县, as its primary administrative districts. A magistrate, the Xian Yin, was appointed directly by the Chu king to govern each county. These appointments were non-hereditary, marking a significant development in the formation of China's centralized bureaucratic system and a departure from older feudal models. During the Warring States period, Chu's commanderies (Jun) primarily served military functions and did not constitute a higher administrative layer governing the counties, meaning the Xian magistrates reported directly to the central authority. 

Rather than belong to intermediate hierarchies, Jun commanderies and Xian counties operated alongside each other laterally as separate territorial divisions answering directly to the central government. Historians note that Chu's implementation of the jun-xian system remained relatively limited and conservative compared to neighboring states. Because Chu encompassed a massive territory with a diverse array of indigenous cultures and powerful entrenched nobles, the central government could not fully strip the aristocracy of their localized power. Meaning beside the central Chu royal court, the various military commanderies that covered local military theaters, and the myriad counties there also exists many traditional tribal enclaves that served more like auxiliaries and vassals.

DEFENSIVE ENTRENCHMENTS

The Kingdom's Helmet- the Chu "Square Wall"- a factor of Chu's security at this critical time was owed to the old "Square Wall" that was constructed in previous centuries. Chu had been one of the 1st states to construct what one would imagine the later Great Wall could be- and they did so with dedicated ambition that sought to connect a sprinkling of mountains and hills leading into the flat central plains into 1 iron bulge and have this line of fortifications plug the critical gap between the great Qinling Mountains running from the west and Dabie Mountains running to the east. The wall also allowed Chu to vitally entrench up a large vulnerable farmland sector in what is today's Nanyang Basin in southern Henan- Hubei transition area. 

The region~ the size that corresponds to modern Belgium or Slovenia (or Connecticut) is vital in multiple senses, not only was it a vital bread basket, but also where half a dozen south flowing rivers all converge like that of a coalescing bough of a tree as it represented the lowest dip between Qinling Mountains and Dabie Mountains in topographical depth, for this reason, in ancient times all traditional north to south traffic that is in China's interior must pass by this riverine gap. The region was vital to north- south China's conduit well until the time of Yue Fei (who made Xiangyang his headquarter) and later dynasties. Because of this well- secured anchor against northward invasion- Chu- with initiative restored was free to instead expand laterally in either east and west using the Yangtze.

At the entrance to the Warring States era- Chu's kingdom- wide strength had greatly recovered. Its agricultural yield was strong, its territories large, its militaries capable, and above all, its leadership stable. During king Zhao's reign as well as that of king Hui's the royal clan was well protected by a procession of deeply loyal uncles and trusted cousins (especially the Shen clan- of Lord Ye) whose members saved the state from various crisis to ensure rightful rule remain in the hands of its ambitious monarchs. Despite this immensely solid head start- ensured and guaranteed by a respectable procession of loyalists and long visioned monarchs- Chu would squander this critical initiative. With the Square Wall securing the northern approach- Chu's ambition in the 300BC was focused on creeping east and holding the upstream headwaters of the various river that flowed into the coastal lands that is now resided by Yue. Though this inexorable eastern march to conquer all the way into the coast did pay off, for having kept its attention to the east, it missed the major metamorphosis in the west.

PROUD POSTHUMOUS SONS

Art by: 孙启鑫

Tangential: though this was a truism for much of Warring State's Chu history it does have a noted exception. After Chu's fall- the post- Chu patriot and "Hegemon King" Xiang Yu was an exceptional cavalry commander whose battlefield exploits were legendary even against far larger enemy contingents and seemingly impossible odds. During the Battle of Pengcheng (205 BCE) Xiang Yu with only 30,000 crack cavalry forces launched a lightning surprise attack that utterly annihilated his rival Liu Bang's far larger of 560,000 army, causing the entire coalition to disintegrate with Liu Bang losing nearly his entire army with himself barely surviving and leading to the capture of multiple members of his relatives.

Art by: 小J名叫姜小江, 竹凡

Art (below) by: San Yang: Xiang Yu for Civilization Mobile

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