Emperor Profile: The Martial Emperor Wu of Han: 汉武帝短记

The once feared old Han general Li Guang- "The Flying General" who served Emperor Wu's predecessors as well as Wu himself. Though Emperor Wu is primarily a statesman and not a warrior- for the near half century of his aggressive expansionary wars he became known as the "Martial" Emperor. Unfortunately- and perhaps tellingly: despite the ascendency of a dynamic caste of new men and new generals who achieved immense fortune and prestige in Wu's time, Li Guang was not one of them. In fact because of his outdated tactics, stubborn pride, and cosmic bad luck he became an object lesson in the pitfalls that destroys those who failed to adequately change in the new paradigm.

This is an excerpt from a larger series regarding various noted Chinese emperors. This short segment in particular briefly covers the context of the founding Gaozu Emperor of Han- Liu Bang.

Art (Below) by 果Z

THE WARRIOR EMPEROR- THE "MARTIAL" WU OF HAN

Invariably- the 2nd great Han dynasty Emperor of note- if not the greatest, was Emperor Wu of Han. Born Liu Che, a century after his ancestor's founding of the dynasty- Liu Che grew up in stability but he inherited an empire that was changing. Internally, for the past century his ancestors had slowly stripped away much of the regional power of the vassal kingdoms in the east- so much so that when afraid they would be all subjugated- they desperately rose up in concert during his father's rule in what was known as the Rebellion of the Seven States the conspiracy was poorly planned and poorly coordinated with various players failing to mobilize and arrive in time to reinforce each other, providing the perfect opportunity for the Han core in the west to utterly crush the rebels on the field then liberally strip away the kingdoms. 

By the time Liu Che inherited the throne at a very young age of 15-16 in 141 BC, his father had left behind him an internally pacified, prosperous, realm. However his early reign was disgracefully sidelined. Instead of having the reins of power devolve into the hand of a young ruler- his powerful grandmother held sway in court, opting to continue much of the liberalized and tolerated corrupt blocs in court. Thus, unable to truly rule as he wished, the young Liu Che began to travel incognito in Chang'an and make friends and associates, in time building a band of talented followers whom he trusted. When his grandmother passed, the young sovereign made his move and positioned his parallel court into the various ministries completely under his authority. From this recentralization- Liu Che turned his attention outside of the realm.

An inexorable autocrat- Emperor Wu of Han (personal name Liu Che) was responsible for nearby half a century of war across various fronts in his remarkably long life. By the time of his death he had managed to turn the Han empire from a strong internally unified regional empire into the undisputable great power of East Asia- and set the foundation of the Silk Road. His posthumous moniker Wu 武 literally translates as "Martial" in remembrance

RENEWED OFFENSIVE AGAINST THE XIONGNU

For much of the last century- the frontier was plagued with Xiongnu raids. Where as the Qin had subdued and united many southern states in the previous century- the early Han saw them abandoned. With his ascension, Liu Che sought to finally confront the northern threat heads on- mobilizing the large wealth and war horses stockpiled by his ancestors. The initial attempt against the Xiongnu failed in farcical fashion, in an attempt to ambush the Xiongnu Chanyu (Chanyu means chieftain)- the alerted Chanyu and his army- who were entirely mounted on horse- easily slipped away from Han pursuit (Han  despite having cavalry still relied on many chariots.) Despite the bloodlessness nature of this rather comical blunder, Han took the lesson to heart. 

Battered: Early Han (Western Han) in yellow, the Qin- Han Great Wall in red, traditional invasion corridor used by Xiongnu forces to penetrate Han territory in green: By this time after generation of wrangling the interior of the Han had became for the most part a de facto unitary empire with imperial authority firmly consolidated under its autocrat. 

Old Men: by this era Li Guang was an wizened and veteran commander who had served several of Wu's predecessors. Dubbed the "Flying General" in his youth he had achieved a feared reputation among the Xiongnu on the frontiers. However he was both backwards in tactics as well as filled with immense pride to become a Marquis through climactic victory. Liu Che secretly did not trust the old warrior's adaptability and instead chose to rely on a caste of new men to lead his war machine.

Rather than relying on the remaining cumbersome chariots which were capable enough on flat open terrain but became inoperable in uneven terrain and required higher equipment cost- Han opted for full deployment of true cavalry- with the only chariots left largely composed of supply and armored war wagons. With the new war broken out- Liu Che also reformed the leadership of his generals. Instead of relying on many old generals- such as the like of Li Guang- Liu Che turned to his inner ranks. Elevating total political outsiders such as Wei Qing and his nephew Huo Qubing to lead his new armies.

NEW MEN

Huo Qubing's resounding campaigns are covered in extensive detail here.

New Men: to the shock of all, instead of relying on the old guard, Liu Che inserted total unproven unknown favorites into position of command- first Wei Qing and then Wei's nephew Huo Qubing. Both were total outsiders and descended as discarded illegitimate sons whose sole loyalty was to the young emperor. Despite the unorthodox nature of their untried nature, both managed to completely defy expectations with flying colors as great offensive commanders. Wei Qing scored an impressive series of victories against the Xiongnu Gobi Desert and Ordos Loop in what is today's Inner Mongolia. Later Wei's nephew Huo Qubing proved to be an even more dynamic commander, and he was able to singe handedly inflict a string of victories in a lone contingent while completely behind enemy lines- then audaciously- proceeding on his own without nearby support swiftly captured the strategically vital Hexi Corridor in only 6 days. Together they also inflicted a decisive victory against the Xiongnu- with Wei Qing defeating the Chanyu's core army and the Chanyu himself at Mobei. With these series of victories, Xiongnu power was greatly weakened for a whole generation- and the Chanyu and his tribes were forced to retreat further north in the wilderness. From these campaigns Han secured both its northern and western frontiers for centuries.

Relentless: Wu's rapacious wars extended well beyond this rather dazzling initial period. Having greatly reformed the Han army and have it led by very capable offense- oriented cavalry commanders, the Han began to pursue a highly militaristic foreign policy- an unforeseen consequence of this was the return of a diplomat thought lost to the frontiers, Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian had been dispatched earlier as a diplomat seeking to act as Emperor Wu's ambassador in forming an anti- Xiongnu coalition with the various tribes out there who were also hostile to Xiongnu power. Despite having been taken under Xiongnu captivity, after decade of imprisonment he managed to escape and make back to the Han court. 

Han expansion during Emperor Wu's rule (original in orange- new acquisitions in blue.) These areas included but were not limited to most of what is considered southern China, including parts of northern Vietnam, the Hexi Corridor, the Tarim Basin, the Ferghana Valley, and northern Korea.

Iranic Peoples: Zhang Qian's western overtures were filled with disappointments. After spending years as a Xiongnu prisoner, Zhang finally escaped and made contact with other tribes he hoped would turn against the Xiongnu. However, they utterly rebuffed his suggestions for a Han alliance. Despite the failures of his initial mission, when he returned to Chang An Emperor Wu made great use of his western accounts and thereupon formulated his western policies. 

Original Artwork by: Joan Francesc Oliveras Pallerols

During his return Zhang reported strange cities in the west- filled with strange people, and fruits that grew from vines (grape) and perhaps most alluringly- superb peerless Heavenly Horses that "shed blood." Intrigued- and with Zhang Qian's veracity proven by the growth of grapes in Chang'an, Emperor Wu dispatched fresh diplomats to secure these horses. After 2 campaigns in the Wars for the Heavenly Horses against Dayuan (lit. "Great Ionians")- supposedly made up of the Greek remnants of Alexander's conquest and former Greek exiles of the Achaemenid Empire, eventually the Heavenly Horses were secured by the westerners and given the Han a keen edge in shoring up its military power against the Xiongnu. 

In the south, Liu Che pursued opportunistic meddling in various southern states, often by aligning with a smaller player and when wars erupts have the Han overwhelm the local defenders. Such campaigns would be followed by settlement of Han subjects in such territories. From these machinations, what would be today's southern China- from Yunnan to Guangzhou to Fujian in the east- even including what is today's northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han realm.

Beside war- which was what he was primarily known for, Emperor Wu also embarked on a sweeping life long series of reforms which included but was not limited to: choosing Confucianism to be the favored state sponsored philosophy. The enshrining of Confucian primacy had a profound impact on the political, social and cultural fields of later generations of China in reverberation for the next 2 millennias. However, some historians credibly argued that he used Confucianism to cultivate virtuous folk customs and societal norm, while in reality using Legalism and legalistic rewards and punishments for the government. During his reign Emperor Wu also created a formal imperial academy: Taixue (lit "Supreme Academy" consisting of the highest learning institution within the nation. This institution was followed by the Bureau of Music. With Chang'an he aggrandized the palaces and even built the massive Kunming Pool- a man made lake large enough for naval training.

Emperor Wu toured extensively across the realm in his entire career- in both assessing local conditions and also rendering ceremonies and rituals to the cosmos. For example, in 110 BC he personally led 180,000 cavalry, their banners stretching for miles, to perform the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, then toured the eastern coast, and finally reached Mount Jieshi.

LATE REIGN: INTERNAL INSTABILITY & AVERTED CRISIS

In the 110s BC- Han experienced a severe series of famines, in 115 BC heavy rains and snow struck Guandong ; a major flood followed in the summer. Thousands of local people starved to death. In April of 114 BC, severe hailstorms struck many areas, causing a major famine in more than a dozen counties in Guandong. Crops failed completely, and cannibalism occurred. Wu gave sanction for the populace to move to neighboring territories and also distributed grain from Sichuan to the affected regions. In the summer of 107 BC, another severe drought struck, causing the land to crack, rivers to dry up, and many people to die of thirst. Two million refugees appeared in the heartlands, including 400,000 unregistered farmers. In the autumn of 105 BC, another severe drought and locust plague struck, with locusts devouring all the crops. Wu responded to such crisis with reallocation of grain, and the sweeping establishment of a series of canals, reservoirs to ease in agricultural production and transport for the general peasantry. These are but but a glimpse of the many crises that both occurred during Wu's reign and also redressed- it should also be noted these occurred often simultaneously within his military campaigns as well. 

In 99 BC, the rebel Xu Bo from Langya area (Anhui) launched a peasant uprising. They occupied the mountains and constructed strongholds, attacked nearby cities and towns, seized weapons, released prisoners, captured prefects and commanders alive, and killed and plundered high-ranking officials. In addition, other rebels such as Mei Mian and Bai Zheng in Nanyang , Duan Zhong and Du Shao in Chu , and Jian Lu and Fan Zhu in Yan and Zhao also launched peasant uprisings. For a time the belly of the empire was riddled with such rebellions. Wu first sent small detachment troops to suppress them, and then sent a large army to pursue and annihilate them, killing tens of thousands of rebels in total 

By his late 60s in the 90s BC- Wu was beginning to be more isolated and cruelly purged officials he did not trust. As a result he was ringed by unreliable ministers who above all fed his innate paranoia- supplying leads whenever Wu had suspicions. After instigating the purge and execution of several innocent officials framed for witchcraft against the emperor, several of whom framed the crown prince Ju with the lies he was motioning against Wu. Though Wu did not initially believe these lies- Wu's son- fearful that his father had been turned by the lying ministers rebelled. The 2 sides battled in Chang'an's streets for 5 days but when it became apparent that he had lost the rebellion prince Ju fled and then committed suicide. His mother- once Emperor Wu's favorite was also forced to commit suicide as well. With consistency, the greatly saddened emperor was still forced to reward his son's slayers. The witchcraft purges continued for a time until once of the forthright ministers convinced Wu (who was already suspecting an incomplete picture) that his whisperers were liars. Wu then conducted his own independent research and thereafter slew the lying whisperers- burning one and slaying the other's entire clan. He then promoted the upright minister to be Chancellor. 

A DIFFERENT FUTURE

In 88 BC Wu fell seriously sick, and without a designated heir and tax burden heavy Wu listened to the suggestion of the new Chancellor- what he did was quite unexpected. Wu publicly issued an edict where he apologized for his mistake, his rapacious wars, the heavy tax burden on the populace, and promised and end to the expansionary wars, reduction of corvee, focus on agriculture and prosperity, and for having listened to the advice of bad ministers. Many of these policies were long advocated by the late Prince Ju and these were realized after his death. At the age of 68 and with failing health, Wu was very grimly aware of the problem facing his death- his surviving older sons are hypocrites and are aloof of obeying the law, instead he chose to pass the throne to his youngest son, who was only 6 year old at the time- to ensure the smoothness of the transition- he entrusted the supreme power of the state under the guidance his trusted minister Huo Guang (the half- brother of the now long deceased Huo Qubing) and a well- trusted Xiongnu prince- turned personal favorite of Wu named Jin Midi (the ancestor of the great Eastern Han general Bang Chao.) With the powers well invested under their care and all parties pledging loyalties to uphold his heir, Wu died soon after several days later. 

...The most important task at present is to strictly prohibit officials at all levels from being harsh and tyrannical towards the people, abolish laws that arbitrarily increase taxes, encourage the people to devote themselves to agricultural production, and reinstate the law exempting those who raise horses for the state from corvée labor and taxes...

- Edict of Luntai

A HAN POST SCRIPT AFTER THE WARRIOR EMPEROR

Images: Digitally reconstructed multi story of Eastern Han mansions. Based on various 

painted funerary models of such buildings- representing a significant element of verticality in the urban landscape of this era in China.

Despite the burdens emplaced by the Warrior Emperor- his final acts was well placed. Huo Guang and Jin Midi both turned out to be astute and faithful ministers and shepherded the young Emperor into a stable era. By contrast to the exhaustive expansionary wars- and severity of Wu's reign- his successor emperor Zhao and Xuan (in fact a son of the late slain Prince Ju)'s rule were known for their peace and immense economic prosperity, culminating in the great enrichment of the general Han populace in the following century. By the time China reached 0 AD Chang'an and Luoyang stood as 2 immensely rich urban centers. A census in 2 AD recorded nearly 60 million people in the empire, representing about one-fourth of the world's total population. With the cessation from prolonged war, nearly 100 years of stability and internal consolidation followed.

After the eras of Emperors Zhao and Xuan, the Han entered into a momentary lapse into courtly corruption and nepotism- dominated by powerful ministerial clans and palace intrigue. During which an ambitious and reform- minded minister named Wang Mang managed to overthrow the imperial Liu clan from within and briefly establish his own Xin 新 meaning "new" dynasty in 9 AD. For a time he ruled as a new emperor while keeping many of the surviving Liu princes under watch. He also drafted many strict yet high minded reforms with hopes it may alleviate the general populace. Unfortunately for his intentions his reforms were carried out badly and within a decade rebellions erupted virtually across the whole expanse of his empire.

Music: Battlefield (Zide Guqin Studio)

One faction that managed to gain ascendancy during this chaotic interlude was from a minor branch of the Liu imperial clan descended from demoted Han regional vassal kings- and through an arduous decade of war and politicking as well as immense heroism: Liu Xiu- who rose from a farmer to become a rebel, and from a rebel to a warlord general, and finally from a warlord to the emperor of the new Eastern Han- by this time Luoyang became his capital and he ruled from there as the new Guangwu- lit. "Shining Martial" Emperor. His restoration of the realm from the abyss of total chaos to stability was such that the realm entered into a new golden age right after. Thus did the Han enter from the golden age of 1st century BC right into the golden age of 1st century AD.

Eastern Han shortly after the death of Emperor Guangwu the "Shining Martial Emperor.” By the time of his death the empire re-entered a new golden age. The talented and much beloved emperor gave his dynasty another 200 year lease in its lifespan.

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From top to bottom- prioritizing left to right. Topmost- Qin Shihuang (Shihuang is a title meaning "First Emperor") of Qin- Ying Zheng. Mid level left- Emperor Gaozu of Han- Liu Bang. Mid level right- Emperor Hongwu of Ming- Zhu Yuanzhang. Bottom left- Emperor Taizong of Tang- Li Shimin. Bottom right- Emperor Wu of Han- Liu Che.