Origin of the Scholar Class, the Literary Soul of Chinese Civilization: 士，华夏灵魂

Music: Tree in East

For nearly 3 millenniums they were the shapers of the Chinese state. They were the voice of its body politics, charters of precarious courses, its thoughts, and at last, the soul of this ever- revitalizing civilization. The 士 Shi- scholar class were gardeners. Their garden spanned from the first Chinese books to the living present. 

"Shi"- 士 or "Scholar" in Chinese today. Though in ancient times the word

is more associated with "attendant" or "servant."

Lofty kick-off speech aside, I want to welcome you all for taking your time to dive into this rather niche topic. I'm fully aware the florid prose you just read in the opener's quite ostentatious and （＞人＜；）just a tad cringe. I am also aware that I'm mostly covering popular history and personally prefer to stick to history in a conservative (as in cautious) manner. However I want to reaffirm myself in saying that I did mean everything I said in the opening. And that while many military or clickbaity history channels often focuses on the bombastic- almost fetishestic dives into pieces of armor, or prized formations etc, I myself am also a long time fan of critical institutions of civilizations and their origins. 

What I am most interested in is how a particular class affected the outlook and destiny of the Chinese civilization, a class that underwent major transformations from a gentry that often fought in wars as close warrior- bodyguards for their lords to become a secretariat class that is singularly defined by scholastic excellence. Then to become a class of professional meritorious statesmen, and later, major shapers within the unitary Chinese state after it became an empire. What's more interesting? Is that they were always there as a perennial fixture in practically all of China's written history (a history: never forget, that was often entirely written by their class) from the consecration of the Mandate of Heaven itself all the way to the living present. Without further ado- the origin of- the gardeners and *ahem* soul of the old dragon.

Scholars in China were strongly associated with the bamboo. By the Song dynasty, the Scholar- Bureaucrats often produced ink- drawings of bamboos and personalized themselves as bamboos in poems and artworks. The bamboo long stood for integrity because of their unyielding straightness and despite its thin shape can withstood unrelenting pressure without breaking, what's more also one of modesty, because it is hollow on the inside and can retain new materials. Additionally there were also a much more materialistic tradition in association with the bamboo: the first books in China were written on slips of bamboo scrolls~ thus bamboo / reading and writing were inextricably connected. 

ANCIENT ORIGINS

Broadly speaking the Shi was a distinctive class and were part of the classic Four Occupations 士农工商 of Scholars/ Peasants/ Artisans/ Traders. Since Spring and Autumn period and the time of Confucius the 四民 Four Occupations were spoken in a set, although the arrangement at times varied in terms of their position within social hierarchy. 书经 "Book of Documents" -spoke that "Overseer of Works (Sikong 司空) were in charge of the Four Occupations," and later sources postulated that the Four Occupations existed in such form since 1000 BC, ie the founding of the Zhou dynasty. 

However although the 士 Shi as a class likely existed by the founding of the dynasty, their roles in society were different than in the days of Confucius: by the old master's time much of this class had began to become fully devoted scholars. Instead, in those earliest days the Shi class had a distinctively martial edge to their identity. 

ZHOU DYNASTY AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The Zhou began as a western vassal of the Shang. On 1046BC Zhou launched a major offensive into the Shang heartland and topple the Shang and seize all of the Shang domains. Though victorious, the sudden death of the first Zhou king caused much of the recently- seized realm to explode in rebellion. However this subsequent conflagration was put down by the astute royal uncle Ji Dan- Duke Wen of Zhou (alternatively Duke of Zhou) none other than the man who consecrated the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. Duke Wen of Zhou then would went on to implement a wide array of reforms that entrenched Zhou authority in the central plains and subdivided Chinese society.

Music: Mandate of Heaven

Arguably one- if not most important Chinese cultural heroes: Duke of Zhou Ji Dan proved a vital Regent at one of the most dangerous moments in Zhou's history. Traditionally he was seen as an incomparable ideological pillar for the burgeoning Zhou state. On May 28th, 1059 BC, when the five major planets of the solar system all converged into a single line in the night sky visible to all~ he framed it as a manifestation of Heaven's own signal to topple the (supposedly) deeply corrupt Shang state. This position eventually expounding into the central concept of the Mandate of Heaven and gave the idea that Heaven (divine, and cosmic order itself) prefers legitimate sovereigns and would topple misbehaving ones. 

Furthermore, propriety and etiquette (by extension that of a sovereign's own) was not only one for good form but one that could literally incur supernatural and cosmic wrath from Heaven against misbehaving offenders. The ingrained politeness and social propriety of East Asians~ rooted in Confucian thought were deeply rooted from the Duke of Zhou's philosophy. Despite the conflagration that exploded against his young nephew's throne, he decisively crushed the rebels and cemented Zhou hold over the former Shang domains. He then went on to expand the Zhou realm into several eastern tribes. What followed was nearly a century of golden age for Zhou, where internally it was peaceful and it vigorously expanded in all directions.

After deftly stabilizing the realm and turning from its most precarious pivot into a golden age of internal peace and vigorous external expansion, the Duke of Zhou dutifully abdicated from his regency and handed full reigns of power to his nephew and retired. Though there will be nearly a millennia of Zhou kings after him, in matters of cultural heroes there's very few that can match him. For this reason the Duke of Zhou was one of Confucius' most revered heroes.

Music: Lord Divine

ZHOU SOCIETAL REFORMS- HIGH FEUDALISM IN CHINA

Zhou domains by the cusp of the Spring and Autumn period. Sinicized states that upheld Zhou courtly rituals and governance marked in blue, semi- Sinicized states in gray. At this time Zhou's interior composed of a vast array of states each with its own laws and governance. The greatest states of the central plains were long parceled to their ancestors during Zhou's founding. After barbarians slew King You, the western capital was relocated to the east at Luoyang marking the transition from Western Zhou to Eastern Zhou.

Historical Context: This is the period of Chinese history that was most similar to Medieval Europe and Feudal Japan. This was the time where the Chinese state was largely decentralized into a patchwork of hereditary (lordly) fiefs- the ruling families ruled these fiefs as private states that had its own laws, its own armies, and in time- with the break down of royal authority, their own diplomacy as well. One of the major areas of reform was redistribution of the newly conquered territories- ie the former Shang lands. 

The old "Well-field system" ~ named after the checkerboard shape which resembles the Chinese letter for "well" 井. In this system a square area of land was divided into nine identically sized sections; the eight outer sections (私田; sītián) were privately cultivated by farmers class while all lands were lordly owned, only the center "public" part which was farmed by all 8 families go to the lord as tribute. The shi were the lowest of the nobles and relied either on salaries from their employers or a portion of harvest from their small fief's peasants.

The Duke of Zhou placed many Zhou royal family members into strategic and resource key territories across the central plains and heartland of the kingdom, creating a network of mutually reinforcing blocs that entrenched Zhou rule. To integrate the displaced Shang, the Shang nobility were resettled in the 2nd great capital of Chengzhou (Luoyang) and some married into the Zhou royalty and nobility. Horizontally having restructured the lands, the Duke then vertically reformed the Zhou society into a hierarchy that gave rise to great lords and the Shi.

Under the King, large tracks of Zhou China would be autonomously administrated by a caste of blood- nobles of dukes, who would then govern their locality with noble ministers. Together this hereditary upper nobility that was eligible into the rungs of upper management was called the Dafu 大夫. Underneath this lordly hierarchy would be the "Shi" 士, a class of knightly warriors and scribes that would be tasked with managing the local region. Under them you have the vast peasantry. Beneath them the slaves.

THE ZHOU CITY- STATES

One distinct quality of this era of Zhou China is that instead of an isolated clan fortress (as in the case of castles) many of the fiefs would be center around a walled capital city- eventually becoming a city- state held on by a ruling family that lived in a walled citadel (think Duchy of Milan.) Arranged in classical Chinese templates they would have a typical square design layout that featured an outer (civic) city and inner (ruling citadel.)

There are variety in designs of course- especially taken account natural elements and topography but this template proved resilient in a range of sizes, from towns that were simply enclosure walled manors to vibrant metropolises as seen in the rich east coast regions near Qi. The design is also quite evergreen in regard to greater Chinese city layouts. Here we can see a rendition of the idealized city for Chengzhou (Luoyang)- a city fit for an upright king. However even recent cities like medieval Beijing still largely adhered to the outer city inner court layout

SHI- ATTENDANTS, WARRIORS

It is in this framework that the Shi class saw extensive practice and use. One thing to note is that unlike the great hereditary blood- Dukes and nobles of Zhou called the Dafu 大夫. The Shi were not barred from entrance into their positions by blood. Social mobility with the Four Occupations were permitted and peasants and traders could induct their sons to become Shi for great lords. At this time Shi served in the lower ranks and lower offices.

Originally, the Shi served in a military capacity very similar to knights- or more aptly, squires. In terms of peerage they were akin to yeomen or gentry. Unlike the great noble- blooded lords, they were defined by their efficiency in service rather than lineage of blood. For this reason as a class they were service- based. Their reason of existence is purely based on their ability and service record. Great Shi- born philosophers like Confucius would advocate for further lowering of barriers for talented people, including impoverished sons to attain a formal education. Meritocracy would be a fundamental ethos of this class~ and in time by extension Chinese state as a whole. 

Music: Notes on Shuori

WARRIOR RETAINERS

Chariots began to appear in China around the late Shang period likely brought about by northern invaders. The crafts were much lighter compared to those deployed by the great West Asian states such as the Mittani and Hittite empires however within China they proved a game changer in warfare. For the next millennia chariot- riding aristocrats would dominate Chinese warfare.

A well armored chariot warrior by the late 5th century BC- late Spring and Autumn period. 

A Shang chariot. The design was retained well into early Zhou. These were light nimble platforms with room for 2 riders. A chariot driver, often the lord- and his bodyguard. In this role the Shi first acted as the companion bodyguard of their lordly charges. As warriors they acted as lancer and archer and protected their lords in the fray. 

CHIVALRIC WARFARE- DUELING LORDS

It should be noted at this time the Shi were inextricably part of the military fabric. Thus denoting them as somehow separate from the military and generalship at this period was reductive. They were the warriors, they were the generals. More specific professional warrior retainers were distinguished by the qualifier Wushi 武士 which means warrior today but the word is composed of Wu 武 meaning "martial" and Shi which we know. Wu + Shi therefore refers to more specialized warrior Shi. Incidentally Wushi is rendered as "Bushi" in Japanese, Bushido (lit. "Way of the Warrior (attendants)") is rooted this this word.

Archaic Chinese character for "chariot" 

Because of the decentralized nature of the Zhou noble domains (and early Zhou's comparatively strong royal authority) early intra- Zhou state combat and competitions were small scale and very formal. Most could be considered ritualize small scale endemic duels among small elite band of champions that settled inter-state disputes. Chivalric codes dictated the way such battles were conducted. Each chariot was usually accompanied by a certain number of infantrymen (tubing 徒兵, or "ground troops" lujun 陆军) , it would be their job to exploit any breakthroughs the chariots made. However the number of infantry guards were not fixed. Ten footmen was the usual number of troops accompanying a chariot during the early Spring and Autumn period- hence the very small scale of these contentions. During wars there would be a large detachment of these chariots followed in short order by the ground troops.

(Early) Zhou chariot riders. The nobleman is heavily armed and gripped the reins of the horses. The reins could also be secured to his belt via a belt hook while he shot arrows. By the late Shang dynasty and early Zhou cuirasses of bronze were fitted for heavy warriors, to his side the Shi sat dutifully as his attendant armed with either a long halberd in the capacity of a lance, or bow and arrows as well. 

Combat in this age were heavily dictated by chivalric conventions and included strictly upheld rules of etiquette. Such rules included only fighting battles at a certain time of the day, formally greet the opposition before the battle began. Propriety in battle conduct may include end to battles upon declaration of truce or admission of defeat. Not attacking the opposition while they are fording across rivers, forgoing of certain arms during combat, etc. 

Furthermore often after the feud is over, on a political level the end result would be a tribute, marriage, small exchange of cities, exchange of position into vassalage/ overlord etc but would almost never result in the sacking of cities or sacking of the other's capital. Cheating, reneging of oaths, assassinations, and slaughter would instantly cause wide- spread visceral ripple effects abroad. Breakers of taboos would incur significant blowbacks among other peers. Those lords who managed to upset a whole bloc or strata of other lords would find themselves isolated, or punished by royal intervention. In this age the royal army was much larger than the territorial armies of the lords and thus could overawe any should disobedience occur. 

The sacking of the old Zhou capital destroyed Zhou royal authority. The entire court was forced to relocate east to Luoyang and from then on, they only held a small strip of land in the center of the kingdom. Surrounded on all sides by powerful long entrenched clans (ironically their distant cousins) they had no room to expand and thus were trapped like a goldfish in a bowl.

Additionally, despite lofty framing: it also speak to the relative internal stability of the realm and the authority of the royal court's influence. Because these ritualized, endemic battles (little more than duels of honor with small warbands) often resulted in solutions, and further escalation would incur royal wrath and intervention, states did not let it went out of control. This however would radically change when the Zhou king was personally slain in battle against the barbarians and the royal court had to completely escape to the east. They were resettled in a far smaller patch of land around Chengzhou (Luoyang) with no room to expand. With the severe and permanent weakening of royal power- the Zhou realm, which was already as fragmented as that of a Holy Roman Empire- erupted in unchecked interstate violence.

Music: Flame of Sin

Material evidence excavated from the Tomb of the Marquise Yi of Zeng (Sui) a wealthy lord of the late Spring and Autumn period and the cusp of the ominous Warring States period. Charioteer's heavy armor- black lacquered hide stitched together with red silk. Hide armor during this period varied from ox hide and more expensive hides such as rhino that are almost definitely reserved for the aristocrats. The boots of some aristocrats are fashioned from white deer skin. At this time the Chinese armies still only used bronze weapons.

RUTHLESS WARFARE- VANQUISHING OF STATES

What followed was a lawless age of lords. The 3 centuries of the Spring and Autumn period was characterized by near total erosion of Zhou royal power and the various sectors of the kingdom fell under the sway of each respective region's great overlords who ruled as regional kings in all but name. With what had been a largely agreed upon set of norms eroded, the various lords took laws and disputes to their own hands. Now when small states fought against each other there were no arbiters or the prospect of royal rescue. Worse yet for them when great states attacked smaller states there were nothing to undo or punish such impunity. Instead, when wars erupted states began to completely annex each other. 

Late Spring and Autumn era chariots, by this time both the horses and the riders were almost always heavily armored, with thick lacquered hide armors protecting the horse's front and sides heavy armor protecting the riders. In many instances foot troops following chariots ballooned to as large as 75 to a chariot. Chu had 100 foot troops attached to their chariots but it was not followed suit by other states.

By this time warfare had dramatically shifted and became exponentially more destructive. At this stage warfare became focused on ruthlessly annexing smaller states, and when great states clash against each other at times armies tens, even hundreds of thousands strong launched into the fray against each other and dozens of cities perished. It was during this time that small states disappeared rapidly across each region.

Because of the aforementioned hemming of Zhou- royalty, and royal blooded houses in the central plains, they no longer had space or vectors to expand. By contrast the frontier lords- often not of the royal lineage were able to freely expand and multiply in size at the expense of "barbarian" states around them. Over time such hegemonic states became immoveable local kingdoms in all but name and annexed or vassalized all smaller nearby states.

Savior of a strife- riven realm or impudent tyrants. The greatest lords of this age were called 霸 (ba) translated as "Supreme Lord" at the time. As overlords that proved matchless in their regions, they were voted into this position by a council of other lords. The office was further invested by the Zhou kings with the authority to operate militarily in the name of the royal court. Under the slogan of "Revere the King, Expel the Barbarians" (a familiar slogan in East Asian classic education that 19th century nativists in Japan resurrected) 

Spring and Autumn era was a time of proving for the Shi and constituted a golden age where due to the need for talented warriors and scribes the shi were actively employed by the various states and allowed to be promoted to higher positions. Early on there were no clear distinction between Shi that served in a civil or military capacity and both paths were readily accepted and advanced. 

THE PERFECT FORMS (FOR THE SHI)

At this time the Shi were something between a knight and a scribe were required to know how to use various bows, horses, chariots, able to draft letters and play go chess, and to become talented generalists both adapt at martial arts and literature. Most of the Shi were educated in the Six Arts which included both martial as well as scholarly focus: including rites 禮, music 樂 (poetic hymns) , archery 射, charioteering 御 (horsemanship,) calligraphy 書, and mathematics 數. Each set of these were further divided into half a dozen types of forms: for example, rites included 5 types, including those performed for auspicious occasions or ominous ones. For guests or for the military. Music included six types including forms and dances. Archery included 5 forms, charioteering 5, calligraphy 6~ broadly including literature and composition, and mathematics 9. 

THE PREEMINENT TALENT OF A STATE

As lower warrior attendants, the Shi not only performed duties as their patron's secretaries and advisors, but also were called upon as fealty sworn troops. Unlike regular levies: Shi served in more professional capacity as warriors. They provided their own weapons and armor, fodder, rations, chariot carriages and other required equipment. For income either relied on their patron's salaries (if they were retainers) or the limited harvest from their peasants. 

国士 Guoshi (lit. "Nation's Shi") a qualifier of high praise for individuals deemed the preeminent talents of a state or the most fearless and bold. During the Chu- Han Contention the invincible Han- aligned general Han Xin was described as an "Incomparable Guoshi."

However like the knightly classes in other cultures, it was a duo- way obligation. Because they ruled over the common peasants in times of danger the Shi were expected to take up arms and defend the land. 国士- was an honorific which meant the preeminent talent/ or fearless defender of a land. 

This bronze scythe blade was once attached to the axle of a chariot wheel, and is known as a wei. It was used to keep enemy foot soldiers away from the chariot.

The ruthless nature of such an age also made sure that embattled states that often had the better middle management~ and thus staffed with the more competent Shi were able to out perform and out match their rivals in lopsided conflicts. The greatest of them often found service with the great Hegemons of the era~ great overlords voted into leadership by a number of their powerful peers and conferred such positions to defend the realm in the Zhou King's name. 

Threat range of a chariot. In this graph 2 opposing chariots rushes to engage each other (the lancers are located on the right side of the craft) however- it also demonstrates the blocking potential of the chariots as the chariots also blocks the movement of the vehicle directly in front of them. 

Music: Censor Smoke

SHI BECAME THE PREEMINENT MINISTERS

Confucius in particular was a key Shi during this period and his origins and life challenges deeply reflected his age. Born to an aged general, he was raised in poverty by his mother, however through his deep learning he was promoted by the Duke of Lu to~ over time become the prime minister of Lu. But due to the unchecked hereditary noble clans in Lu who held all the reins of power in Lu he was forced on a self- imposed exile to spread his advocacy for reform across the great states of the era. Despite failing to convince these sovereigns during his time, after his death Confucianism became greatly valued and became the mainstay philosophy across the Zhou realm.

At the tail end of this chaotic age the Shi class began to crystalize around more ministerial positions. By this point the Shi served in all of the major courts of the age and began to be promoted to the highest positions. Some nobles might be talented and literate, but as a class ALL shi were guaranteed to be literate and thus could be relied upon for lettered jobs such as scribes and accountants and upper management. 

As a result of this internal upward mobility the Shi became far more influential and able Shi could be promoted into prime minister or supreme commanders while the hereditary nobles: the Dafu gradually had much of their ancient powers stripped away by their rulers and evolved into an official position in the bureaucracy, not a hereditary peerage. Instead of relying on these nobles for aid and chariotry the rulers bypassed their authority and build great armories and conscripted large blocks of soldiery numbered in the tens of thousands entirely obedient to the sovereign.

By this point several prominent schools have formed with a large body of student and extensive works. Scholars have often attributed to the flourishing of many philosophical schools during the late Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period (the Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy) as 諸子百家 "Hundred Schools of Thought." The topic of discussion varied from meditation on society and governance such as Confucianism, Daoism to Mohism and Legalism, to much more specific fields of study, such as School of Diplomacy which was subdivided between the Horizontal and Vertical Alliances, additionally there were School of Music, School of Naturalism, School of Agriculture etc.

A conservative who sought to restore the chaotic and perverted fratricidal realm to order and virtuous societal renewal~ Confucius fundamentally believed that virtue could exist in all and could be cultivated by all despite circumstances of birth or stations of birth. For this reason he also carried a progressive streak and strongly believed that education should be open to all, even the poorest sons, and those who are talented and virtuous ought to rise without barriers. To Confucius, anyone can be a junzi 君子 or gentleman through cultivating his virtues. The word originally meant the son of a lord but despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself can become a junzi. A criminal can reform and become a virtuous contributor of society, and a talented and virtuous man could be promoted to the highest position in the court. 

Though he was not able to realize this during his life, after his death the idea blossomed across the realm. He and his followers called themselves Ru 儒 which meant "Scholars."

THE POLITICAL MILITARY SCHOOLS

Within such a wide array of schools also included military academies as well. One of the more fantastical was taught by Guiguzi 鬼谷子, literally translated as "Sage of the Ghost Valley," who (or more precisely whose school) according to traditional supposedly trained several of the next age's peerless military geniuses including Sun Bin, Pang Juan, and diplomat-statesmen such as Su Qin and Zhang Yi. 

The sage himself was likely a later invention to pad out the credibility of these larger than life maker and breaker of nations. However templates of such geopolitically focused schools did exist and definitely contributed to education of later statesmen. One example was the "Art of War" which was most likely published in mid Warring States period and would be taught to many military lineages. Sun Bin- often attributed as a descendant of Sun Tzu was very likely the real Sun Tzu, and he wrote his large body of instructions and teachings in his own treatise.  

THE WARRING STATES PERIOD- SHI EMBODYING THE STATES

A great statesman~ even if they are not personally exemplary in battle; at their best could be envisioned as some kind of many- armed Hindu god or guardian spirit. Whereby each of the mighty arms (armies) of the state can be expected to reliably deal gory damage to the enemy. In short, like a conductor of a grand orchestra: the best statesman fight with the full might of all of his generals, while backing them with the full apparatus of the great state. Thus was the 国 state, in all its monstrosity and glory. 

Music: Ten Scorching Suns

Woe to the Vanquished: The Last Free Small States- yellow arrows represents expansionary conquests that annexed the last free small states. It was during this time, the climax of the mid Warring States period that all other smaller states disappeared. What's more, all 7 of the major surviving states all declared themselves kings by this time and their domains a kingdom. 

With the dramatic consolidation of royal power at the expense of the former chariot borne aristocrats and their replacement at the hand of the Shi. The kings of the next age began to field huge personal armies loyal exclusively to their rule~ yes Kings, for they now dropped the facade of submission to the impotent Zhou Kings. 

Once heavy armor were almost exclusively only afforded by the aristocrats on chariots and their accompanying footguards, with most levy's armors consisted of a simple frontal chest piece and a shield, by the Warring State's period, -with the implementation of greatly reformed drafts, taxation, and creation of state armory and weapon smithies, even low born soldiers began to be drilled and equipped as professional soldiers. 

Originally invented during the Spring and Autumn era, the crossbow was a weapon that democratized fire power to even freshly trained peasant levies. With only 2 weeks of training or less, rows of crossbowmen could deliver volleys that ends the life of whole vanguards of aristocrats who had been trained in weapons their whole lives. Late Warring States period was marked by great concentration of power under the hands of each kingdom's autocratic Kings and the drastic reduction of the power and relevance of the old feudal- nobility. With increased centralization of power and the building of vast networks of state armories late Warring State period featured large infantry and archer blocks of well-drilled professional and semi- professional soldiers. 

A QUIVER OF STATESMEN- PROFESSIONAL STATESMEN

Warring States period would be characterized by many talented Shi scholars sojourning abroad and finding their calling under a like minded patron. Through their dynamic cooperation the duo would radically transform the underdog nation and shepherd it to meteoric rise into a preeminent power of the age. Conversely they also formed epic rivalries with their Shi nemesis counterparts who often led an enemy nation. Part modern NGO think tanks, part political theorists, these mercenary philosophers debated their augments with the clashing armies of millions. 

Chinese lantern designed as a miniature carousel with dueling mounted warriors.

Music: The Grand Ceremony of Qin

The first great shaper of nations in this period was Wu Qi. Born from a rich family, Wu Qi devoted much of his youth in arduously studying the military treatises and classics of statecraft. When he was driven out of his birth state~ he entered into the service of the central state of Wei. Wei was a competent but small state at the center of the Warring States world and it was surrounded by potential enemies and competitors on all sides. However one thing that distinguished Wei over others was that its governing apparatus was extremely meritocratic. Through radical reforms the Marquis of Wei had ensured that its civil and military government ignored hereditary peerage and instead opened to all that were able to rise due to merit. Due to his experience and scholarship, Wu Qu was given reins to Wei's military.

Wu Qi then formed a crack troop of elite and professionally drilled military section called the Wei Wuzu 魏武卒 (lit, "Wei Martial Troop") an elite and versatile core of heavily armored Wei infantry that was equipped simultaneously as halberdier, crossbowmen, and sword and shield (or pavise) infantry. "Martial" in this instance not only denoted their role as warriors but their proficiency in many martial arts- as such were like weapon masters. The wei wuzu would soon embark on a campaign that immortalized them in Chinese history. 

In 409 BC, the Marquis of Wei appointed Wu Qi as the commander-in-chief to conquer Hexi from Qin. According to records, Wu Qi led Wei Wuzu march south and northern in war, during this period, he fought 76 times with the armies of the princes, winning 64 times, and the rest were draws." He attacked Hangu Pass to the west, fought countless battles with the Qin state, and seized more than 500 miles of Hexi and great 5 walled cities from Qin. He then held on to the region for 20 years and entrenched the Wei position there. When a new Duke ascended into the Qin throne he called for a realm wide muster in Qin to revenge against this past humiliation. The Qin gathered some 500,000 soldiers and threw them against the Wei defenses at Yin Jin- which had only 50,000 defenders largely composed of the Wei wuzu. The result was a staggering victory where the Wei elites beat back the Qin army and Qin was forced to retreat. 

Despite this resounding victory and 20+ years of loyal service, Wu Qi was driven from Wei by intrigue at court. However by this time his renown was throughout the land and soon found employment in the great state of Chu. There, even in his old age he performed his miracle again and forged an invincible war machine in Chu where it then went on to score a series of conquests. However when his patron king died, jealous rivals at the Chu court slew him. Despite the tragedy of his end. Many similar wandering scholar- generals would follow in his wake and radically lead the way for the great state's development in this era.

Achievement or Abyss. Shang Yang believed in the importance of meritocracy in selecting officials and bureaucrats. He abolished the nobility in Qin and introduced a system of exams that tested individuals' abilities and knowledge, and used this to select officials based on merit rather than social status. This helped to create a more efficient and effective bureaucracy, and ensured that the most capable individuals were put in positions of power. From this point on Shi- and officialdom would be blurred. 

THE AGE OF PHILOSOPHER- GENERALS HAD BEGUN

Wei- blessed by its early implementation of radical reforms, clever diplomacy, and the forging of an early meritocratic war machine was able to dominate the era's politics for some half a century. And for a time it was the nexus of talent for many aspiring scholars and ministers who all came under its court's roof 门客. However the next 2 major figures would be spurned by their time in the Wei court and prove instrumental in making 2 of Wei's neighbors the destroyers of Wei. Shang Yang and Sun Bin.

Shang Yang and Sun Bin's biography overlaps somewhat as both were 2 of the most prominent statesmen of that era. Both ironically started their early career in Wei however had to leave in discontent. Shang Yang would be instrumental in radically transforming Qin completely from the ground up and making Qin a peerless war machine of the age, and Sun Bin would transform Qi into a prosperous kingmaker in the east, and restrengthened Qi's outdated military. Together Qi and Qin attacked Wei in 2 major wars which broke Wei's back and ended its hegemony. From then on, power was no longer retained among the central states and were only left in either the east or the west. Like Wu Qi, despite their contributions their skills were widely feared at court and both were sacked and undone by intrigue.

It was with the breakup of Wei's previous hegemony that serious question began to be raised about the late and end game of this age. Namely, now with almost only 7 great states left, Qin and Qi at the time were 2 of the strongest kingdoms, the question asked whether the future will belong to a coalition of mutually supporting small states who can hold their own and fend off larger threats together- and let the vertical belt dictate the future, or should the future belong to the great states like Qin and Qi on the east and west. Extensive debates were raised over this- and the next prominent group of shapers were from the School of Diplomacy: namely the School of Horizontal and Vertical Alliances.

By this time the power and offices of the officials were not only national- as in being active in shaping internal reforms but also highly international as well. Although coalitions and alliances had existed immemorial before this era, by this time, coalitions became colossal in size and at times were able to rope in nearly all of the states.

WEAVERS OF MULTIPLE NATIONS 

More powerful than Kings. Leading several kingdoms: Diplomacy were not passive in this era~ often as in the modern world, diplomacy played out in groupings of colossal coalitions. Gongsun Yan was a preeminent figure of this era. Bearing the moniker of Xishou 犀首, or "Rhinoceros Head." He was a capable military general as well as philosopher and diplomat, he convinced 5 states: Wei, Zhao, Han, Chu, and Zhongshan to form up a grand coalition against Qin and for a time greatly checked Qin power. At this time he was awarded the right to use the seal of all 5 kingdom's Chancellors and was empowered to make decision on the field.

Another major preeminent diplomat at this time was the cunning Su Qin. There are contradictory accounts of his early life and even the era which he lived in, however the more credible version had his era around the time of Qin's unstoppable ascension around the reign of King Zhaoxiang. A minister that aided Yan, he canvased 6 of the remaining kingdoms to rally into a grand defensive alliance against Qin, joining the great states of Yan, Zhao, Wei, Qi, Han, and Chu together. 

In that charmed moment, he was given robe decorated with the insignia of the six kingdoms. He was given a great seal to draft policies for all 6 against their grave enemy. In that charmed moment, all the major remaining kingdoms of the Central Plains danced to his tune and turned like dutiful gears in his clockwork schemes. However his true goal had been to undermine Qi on Yan's behalf so it will be ruined and save Yan from its nearest danger. 

To do this, he baited Qi to invade and annex the southern minor state of Song and thus expose its flank. The megalomaniacal King of Qi did so and as a result Su Qin's trap was sprung and the outraged realm in unison, now consisted of Yan, Zhao, Wei, Han, Chu,, and Qin, all invaded Qi and took over 70 cities, annexing all of the kingdom except 2 great walled cities on the coast. Yan eventually brutally executed Su Qin by drawing and quartering him. However as the adage goes: "When you tear out a man's tongue, you are not proving him a liar, you're only telling the world that you fear what he might say." It was all part of Su's plan, and he had it his way. Again, diplomacy in this ere was not passive. A clever tongue at court and schemes of mind can cruelly undo a mighty state.

THE SUPREMACY AND REUNIFICATION UNDER QIN

Qin followed with 50+ years of headlong invasion into the remaining kingdoms. 

The removal of Qi- the other great pole of this era in the east would greatly strengthen the sole remaining great kingdom of this era. King Zhaoxaing of Qin eventually became a nearly unstoppable terrifying figure in the Warring State age, and he would actively launch rapacious attacks and warpaths against all of Qin's rivals. At Zhaoxiang's head was the frightful veteran general Bai Qi~ the greatest general of the Warring States age who fought over hundreds of battles and according to "Record of the Grand Historian" seized more than 73 cities from the other six hostile states, and ended his career with a kill ratio of nearly a million vanquished enemy soldiers, whom to date no record has been found to show that he suffered a single defeat throughout his military career. 

During its forays into the central states Qin crushed its nemesis of Zhao in the battle of Changping and buried hundreds of thousands of its captured soldiers (400,000 by liberal estimations.) Seized the Chu ancestral capital of Ying and its heartlands, and was so brazen as to topple the Zhou king himself. By the end of King Zhaoxiang's 50 year warpath Qin was in a position of supremacy over all of the 6 remaining kingdoms. But that grand ambition would be fulfilled later by his great- grandson Ying Zheng, the future First Emperor. Unlike his ancestor, Ying Zheng's own conquests were comparatively fast and thorough, in a decisive decade he subjugated or destroyed 1 kingdom of another and reunited the 8 century fragmented realm under Qin sway.

The Confucian have over the centuries long purported that after the Qin reunified the realm they conducted an extensive burning of the books and burying of some 460 Confucian scholars~ contributing to the loss of much of the vital books from this era in what amounted to a literary holocaust. For the next 2 millenniums this tradition was simply accepted as truth, in large part considering that nearly all of Chinese history were drafted and edited by the scholar class who would have deeply resented the Qin. 

However modern scholars have largely rendered this narrative as apocryphal or anti Qin propaganda intentionally written to demonize the Qin and elevate the Han. Where as indeed the Qin were brutal to rebels and subversives within their path, and did destroy works they considered incorrect or subversive, they also kept a copy of those books in the imperial library. Qin also did have some scholars executed, but many of them served in a state ministers and in a military capacity and were thus proper enemies. What's more the burning of the large Qin libraries were done when Qin state was destroyed by rampaging rebels and by Xiangyu's sacking of the Qin capital and were not evidence of conspiratorial malice on the Qin's part. 

Music: Sun Chase

A DREAM OF SPRING- AGES BEYOND

Despite the crucible of this strive- riven age, what followed the end of the Qin and the rise of the Han would be 400 years of general internal peace in the Chinese realm. During the Han dynasty Han emperors heavily relied on the scholars and appointed them to high positions within the court and across the realm's bureaucracy. The 士 Shi in ensuing centuries would be blurred into a new class: the scholar- officials, where those who are very learned attained exorbitant imperial postings and could essentially live like nobility through that office and service. The Shi and the now obsolete noble Dafu gradually merged and became the Scholar-officials (士大夫 Shi Dafu) in the next millennium of imperial dynasties. Han also in headlong fashion established a network of Taixue 太学 or imperial academy/ imperial universities. 

The first nationwide government school system in China was established in 3 AD under Emperor Ping of Han, with the taixue- the imperial academy located in the capital of Chang'an and local schools established in the prefectures and in the main cities of the smaller counties. By the 2nd century the Han taixue held 30,000 students and scholars. This provided the Han dynasty with well-educated bureaucrats to fill civil service posts in the imperial government. The institution would go through several stages of changes in the next millennium. Additionally it was during the Han that the descendants of Confucius were enfeoffed as Dukes in Qufu (Lu), where he once served. *Lu was consecrated for the Duke of Zhou's direct line- in a way closing the loop of culture itself and the descendants would hold hold to Qufu across all of the Chinese dynasties- including myriad steppe conquest dynasties until the 20th century.

Confucian temples were ceremonial halls for rites to be conducted and dedicated to the veneration of scholars. Of particular note were veneration paid to incorruptible ministers and consummate scholars of the previous dynasties including those martyred by court intrigues and injustice. The imperial Confucian temple in Vietnam was called Temple of Literature. By 1363 all state officials in the kingdom of Korea were required to study in the national Confucian Academy in the capital. After pacifying the divided Japanese realm the Tokugawa Shogunate also established a network of Confucian academies across the Shogunate.

In these academies Confucianism was taught along with classical literature, and pillars of statecraft and civil management. This institution would persist long after the fall of the Han and the century of chaos after- including moving with the Jin imperial court to Nanjing. The number of attendees would fluctuate but by the Sui the taixue again became a major institution. By this time the taixue were responsible for drafting and conducting the imperial service exams which was a vital apparatus for providing talented scholars for the management of the empire. It was a culmination of Confucius' ancient dream. 

Crown Prince Zhaoming 昭明太子 of the southern Liang dynasty who died at the young age of 29 but composed a monumental literary corpus named Wen Xuan or "Selections of Refined Literature," which preserved much of Qin and Han poetry for posterity. When the northern part of China fell to the northern conquerors the academies were relocated to Nanjing in the south. The Wen Xuan was required reading for any aspiring scholar and official into the Song dynasty.

Now, through merit alone, previous unknown talents can- through this meritorious exam - rise to positions of great prominence despite the conditions of their origins. From this age on, the scholar- ministers became a vital component of not only China but the fabric of East Asia specially in nearby kingdoms like Korea and Vietnam which were also ruled by their own scholar- bureaucrats. By the Song the institution was expanded and became a training academy for future imperial ministers. As an institution the imperial academies persisted until 1905 into the final years of the Qing dynasty. 

In each of China's golden ages the scholars flourished. 

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