Song Dynasty (960- 1279) Military Overview Part 3- Song- Tangut Wars: 宋代军事概要 3- 北宋党项西夏战争

Top: Art by Jack Huang. Bottom: Art by merasgar

Music: See These Flames?

PART 2: READ HERE

While the dwellers of the Tang heartlands saw the disintegration of the empire as a harrowing calamity, for the Tanguts, who had spent centuries as the empire's auxiliaries- it meant opportunity. The story of the Tanguts is a curious one, where a bit player that had always been around managed to snatch a key to power in the storm of chaos and then ended up claiming a kingdom of their own.

The 3 Kingdoms of the 10th and 11th century China: Northern Song (Red) and its 2 main regional rivals: the Khitan- led Liao Dynasty (Gold) to its northeast, and the Tangut- led kingdom of Xixia (lit. "Western Xia": in Gray) in the northwest. All 3 were major players by the end of 7 decades of post- Tang civil war and anarchy known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. During these times, the already strong Khitans in the northeast gained momentum and made ambitious forays into central China. It was also at these times Xixia made their ambitious bid in the west.

THE WESTERN CONTEXT

This chapter is focused on the origin of the Tangut- led Xixia state and its sporadic heavy fighting with the irredentist Northern Song state. It will briefly cover the respective interest of the 2 empires and the performance of their clashes. We will began with the historical origin to see who the Tanguts were, then analyze the western regions to understand the geopolitical conditions that shaped Xixia's interests and Song's irredentist war aims.

Contested battleground in detail: Nearly all of the major wars between the Song and Xixia erupted around the arduous northern bend of the Yellow River. Here, especially around the waste of the sandy Ordos Plateau (upper left corner) the steep loess gorges overlooking the Yellow River made for a perfect line of entrenchment for Xixia to protect itself against Song onslaught. Here the lands were arid and extremely sparsely populated. 

For a full detailed exposition of the Fall of the Tang dynasty and the part the Tanguts played check out this article in full. A summarized version: during the calamitous Huang Chao's rebellion which brought the already tottering Tang to the brink of collapse, the Tanguts along with various other ambitious powers- including that of the Shatuo Turks aided the Tang in putting down the rebellion. 

For these merits, they were awarded key sectors of the empire to be ruled over as hereditary fiefs (Jiedushi) and they were made hereditary military governors of those regions. The Tanguts in particular were awarded several humble prefectures to the northwest of the empire and the privilege of using the imperial last name of "Li." When the Tang fell, these men all became various competing warlords that fought for the right to be the sole unifier of the Chinese realm.

Music: Resonate Wave Profound

WESTERN SANDS

Tanguts were semi-nomadic warriors that served various powers. Their men wore the distinctive tonsured pate, their opportunism allowed them to consolidate into a great power. 

While the heartlands descended into anarchy that would last for some 72 years with the north rapidly ruled by a procession of swiftly toppled dynasties, in the northwest the Tanguts too consolidated their hold and armed themselves to the teeth. 

The seat of Tangut power was the Dingnan region in modern Yulin, Shaanxi. This wind- blasted side of the massive Taihang Mountains was an arid mountainous waste and lies fully exposed to fowl weather and invaders from the nearby Gobi desert.

Nominally they paid lip service to whoever came to dominate the north (the most formidable part) of China, but otherwise were effectively independent. At different times powerful northern dynasties such as the Shatuo Turk- led Later Tang tried to wrestle the region into the fold without success. Records about the Tanguts from this period were sparse, and aside from a procession of names little was know about them including the exact dates of their activities. And then at the tail end of the 7 decade cauldron, central China was fully reunited again under a new hegemonic dynasty, the Song. And it was also around this time the Tanguts reappeared in the records to play a more significant role in history, in violence. 

HEARTLAND REFORGED

At this moment in time the Tanguts were far from being one of the major players or even a regional power- yet. They were merely the military governors of the Dingnan region and vassals to whichever managed to become the prevailing northern dynasty in the Central Plains. By this time the Song (Red) had managed to reunite all of the old heartland of the Tang empire by doggedly conquering the south in 2 decades of warpath then turning its attention northward. 

Founding Song Emperor Zhao Kuangyin- a military man whose overall strategy of a southern conquest (rather than a grinding northern slog) proved its worth in Song incorporating all of the south back into the Central Plain's fold. He died before full reunification. His more studious and underhanded younger brother sought to emulate him by turning full Song attention northward. Northern Han, a small but militarily formidable state that for decades had lied between Song and Liao was quickly conquered with the Song easily destroying the Liao relief for Han, however in overconfidence the Song tried to vanquish Liao with disaster. The Liao crushed the Song imperial army and gained an upper position for a century thereafter. 

Music: Perilous Path

A BRAZEN PLOY

Before Song reunited the realm while it was still only ruling the north, the Tangut military governor of Dingnan Li Guangyan gave birth to a son named Li Jiqian in 963 AD. Li was quickly trained in the martial arts of his clan and in his youth became an excellent horseman, marksman and a cunning tactician. In 982 (by this time 3 years after Song had reunified the imperial heartland from Hebei to Hainan) after learning that his cousin had defected to the Song court and handed over the five prefectures to the Song, he rallied his tribesmen for a rebellion in force. After securing an alliance with the powerful Liao empire as its vassal and marriage with a Liao princess, in 984 Li Jiqian and the Tanguts rebelled. 

Old Roles: Though they were used as proxies the Tanguts by this time had been familiar with this role for centuries. Tanguts first came into prominence in the Xianbei- led western state of Tuyuhun in the west and because of their service as valuable auxiliaries were rewarded the privilege of using the Xianbei imperial last name of Tuoba. After Tuyuhun fell to the Tang the Tanguts pledged loyalty to the Tang. When war broke out between the Tang and Tibetan empires over what was Tuyuhun the Tanguts opportunistically served both empires as proxies. With the afforementioned recuing of the Tang during Huang Chao's rebellion the Tangut leaders now earned the Tang imperial last name of Li, discarding Tuoba.

For centuries Tanguts were nomadic auxiliaries and shock troops that served in a valuable military capacity. Both Tibetans and the Tang also saw them as useful pawns while the Tangut saw this role as a direct tap on the powers that be, furthermore the times where they served 2 clashing sides ensured that irrespective of the winner, a Tangut future would be preserved.

The rebellion came at an inopportune time for the Song- the Song were trapped in bitter fighting in the north against the Liao on the other side of the Taihang mountains. In 986 the Song culmination to throttle Liao in a massive coordinated northern warpath was resoundingly defeated by the Liao defenders. Thereafter the Song was forced to sue for peace and pay a hefty annual tribute with the acknowledgement of Liao's superior position. These upsets eventually dampened the 2nd Song emperor's external ambitions and gave the Song a much more cautious and inwardly focused posture. But in the west the rebellion and raids continued. 

Liao was more than happy to have the Tangut act as proxies and stymie any Song attempt to secure all of the Hexi Corridor. This inward posture was retained when the 3rd Song Emperor~ Zhenzong came to the throne. Fearing the prospect of sleepwalking into another disastrous war with a much more militarized Liao, Zhenzong sought to placate the rebellious Tanguts by confirming what they already were while shifting internal matter to turn Song into an unrivaled engine of prosperity. 

Music: Mahavira Hall

A NEW HOMELAND

Ethnic Han painter applying touches to a Buddhist mural in the western regions. The Tanguts- and eventually their Xixia state was a cosmopolitan state. Despite being ruled by an ethnic Tangut elite who managed to keep to their distinctive ways, Han courtiers, bureaucrats, and officials were long retained. As the Tanguts adopted a very sedentary life style- despite an overall preference for Buddhism, many of their stately institutions were further Sinicized. 

Above: Yulin Cave mural: dated to Xixia Kingdom. By contrast shortly after this time the Northern Song court would be divided between factions of conservatives who were satisfied with an inward Song where it was a peerless engine of prosperity and reformists who wanted a more all-encompassing state and revanchist in posture to recover former Tang lands.

Zhenzong recognized the Tangut holdings as an independent power and even conferred the Li clan with the Song's own imperial last name of Zhao. As with before, the Tanguts discarded their former last name and adopted Zhao as their last name. Though going forward, because the clan was traditionally referred by "Li" as their last name (and because further enmity and ambition made them ditch "Zhao" as a last name too) we shall still referred to them as Li in last name. For the moment Li Jiqian's hold was secured. During his rule he implemented irrigation canal building efforts. But above all, he sat his covetous eyes west.

With covetousness, sight was set on the west, once those areas were a vital part of the Tang empire's west and were undreamed of in riches. The area especially around the narrow Hexi Corridor in modern Gansu province served as a critical lap of the Silk Road and strategically whoever possessed it can channel and bottleneck all traffic in predictable directions, what's more unlike the bulwark of the massive Song in the east, in the western reaches there were only a smattering of small local kingdoms.

Despite Song concessions, the Tangut leadership must have surmised that at best their reprieve was only ephemeral. Compared to the massive hold of the Song in the east and its continual strengthening, they were in a lopsided relation at the best of times, what's more unless their own weaknesses were shored up, any future wars with Song would be disastrous. Thus the Tanguts set their sights west in force and invaded the Lingwu Circuit to their west (modern Ningxia Autonomous Region) straddling the lone patch of lush flood plain of the Yellow River.

THE GREEN EYE OF THE SAND WASTE- A NEW HOME

Geography immediately due west to Dingnan Jiedushi. Tangut geopolitical aspirations lied with the natural defensive barriers along the north bend of the Yellow river- along the arid loess gorges and the barren Ordos plateau. Whoever possessed the few fortified walled cities along the upper most part of the Yellow River's bend meant they had the advantage of a chain of militarized oasis on an otherwise vast arid steppe. In these vast arid mountains and steppes, the raging river brough cities of immense riches and food self sufficient production. The foundation of a mighty empire.

Li Jiqian- after been rewarded for his bold rebellion against the Song was emboldened to try his luck again. With a massive concentration of his forces he invaded the western Lingwu Circuit and took its capital, killing the military governor. This great city- which laid on an extremely strategic fertile flood plain surrounded on both side by the Yellow River became the new Tangut center of power- Li Jiqian quickly brought in 6,000 loyal clansmen and retainers to govern this precious oasis.

An oasis surrounded on 2 sides by the Yellow River. Like ancient Mesopotamia, it was a vast lush flood plain which laid between 2 separate courses of mighty rivers. Here the Tanguts made it their new capital called Xingqing (modern Yinchuan) and where the Tangut kings would be buried. Not only was it very easy to defend, like a green eye of the storm it was a mighty oasis bastion enough to feed a vast populace and any invaders will suffer massive attrition against it. 

The flood plain was so massive that it constituted the majority of today's Ningxia's north (the translation of the region meant: "Peaceful Xia" in reference to the kingdom of Western Xia that once existed here.) The well protected flood plain was so prominent that it can be seen from the satellite image of the region- green strip in the north.

Music: Even Pests Plagues Our Path

However it was here that Li Jiqian's luck ran out, because of his 2 previous bold gambits, Li Jiquian became arrogant and planned for 2 ambitious western invasions to capture 2 additional prefectures. At this time in 1002 the western prefectures were commanded by a stubborn Tibetan Chieftain named Pan Luozhi 潘罗支. This area of the modern Gansu Province had once been a militarized hub of the Tang, then the Tibetan empire. After the Tibetan empire fell in 842 it again fell under a stubborn Tibetan confederacy called the Liugu 六谷 tribe (lit. "Six Valleys") made up largely of Tibetans and Uighurs. 

Tibetan + Turkic Influences: Royal drinking scene at the entrance of Dukhan of Alchi Monastery, Ladakh. The seated king is depicted with Turkic braids and a sleeved Qabā.

In order to lull Pan into false complacency, in 1003 Li purposely made his western shared border with Pan appear weak and feigned for an eastern campaign. Then suddenly in November, Li Jiqian attacked the prefecture and captured it. However Pan, long anticipated that Li Jiqian would betray him instead preempted Li by swiftly surrendering to Li. Li was satisfied and lowered his guard. In truth before he was invaded Pan had been forging an alliance with the Song, pledging his tribe as a Song vassal and had secretly had conserved some 60,000 cavalry. With Li's guard down Pan launched an all out attack against Li's position. Caught by surprise the Tangut army was crushed and Li Jiqian received a deadly arrow wound. 

By January 26 of 1004 Li Jiqian's wound worsened and he died, beseeching his son and heir Li Deming to submit to the Song to buy time. The heir did far beyond simply preserving the precarious Tangut position, the Tanguts would prepare for an all out offensive that would sweep through the west. For the time being, the pressing problem of the Tibetan warlord Pan Luozhi rather solved itself, after Li Jiqian's death the warlord pressed for Song for a combined alliance against the weakened Tanguts, the Song rejected this opportunity. Though even if they had accepted this proposal it would have been moot, that same month he was assassinated by tribesmen that had swore fealty to the Tanguts. Despite having wasted this asset, the Song posthumously conferred him with a title. 

THE RESTRENGTHENING UNDER LI DEMING

It turned out that if anything, Li Jiqian was a worthy father who raised his heir well. Li Deming was a patient, capable and deliberate sovereign who was able to keep a low profile and bid his time but strike like a bolt of lightning. He took the crown before his father's coffin and did as his father commanded. 

For more than 2 decades years of his rule Li Deming bid his time and implemented the policy of paying tributes to both Liao and Song in "relying on Liao and Song" receiving title from both in coffering his position as the King in the west all the while waiting for the perfect moment to strike westward. During his peaceful early tenure, Li Deming extensively developed his inherited state. He fully moved the capital and administrative apparatus to Xingqing and fostered further expansion of agriculture in the region. 

Because of the low profile he kept with northern and eastern patrons (Liao and Song) he encouraged extensive trade with the Song, thereby greatly enriching the Tangut hold all the while conserving a large maul to throw against the west. Tanguts set up large black markets for all manner of good between the east and west- including contraband, they were also notoriously corrupt in fleecing Song merchants that sought to pass through the kingdom. Records stated that: "(usually at tolls) The generals and officials of the Xia Kingdom usually select one out of ten and choose the best quality ones, which makes the merchants suffer." Then after long stockpiling the kingdom's coffers for nearly 30 years, the Tangut comet was unleashed. 

Though small in size the kingdom quickly became the sole hegemon in the west by its ability to concentrate its forces and defeats its rivals in detail. Like the Khitan- led Liao, the Tanguts were excellent horsemen. 

Aside from the high quality of Tangut cavalry, the state also made use of disciplined infantry blocks. The famous "Divine Arm" 神臂弩 crossbow with stirrups and horn bow prods commonly associated with the Song in fact had origins from its contact fighting the Xia state. By this age crossbows made of mulberry and brass crossbow in 1068 could pierce a tree at 140 paces. 

The Divine Arm itself was reputedly able to shoot as far as 240 paces and effective at killing around 150 paces. A "D" shaped stirrup hoop were added to the top of these bows in concentrated volleys they proved devastating to even well armored crashing waves of armored enemy horsemen.

Li Deming's great army was primed against the Tibetans and Uighur in the west , his ambitions included conquering the Liugu Xiliang Prefecture in the west that his father failed to conquer (Gansu), the small Ganzhou Uighur kingdom, and the far flung Guiyi Circuit in Shazhou (now east of Dunhuang , Gansu) Finally in 1028 that enclosed fist was thrown. 

During the meteoric reigns of the dynamic Li Deming and his son Li Yuanhao, both men made immense strides in expanding Xia reach westward, eventually nearly tripling Tangut domains and annexing states such as the Guiyi Circuit and the Ganzhou Uighur Kingdom. The conquest did not end until the Tanguts have reached the Tarim Basin where another Uighur kingdom- the Kingdom of Qocho stood.

Guiyi Circuit: A Tang- Loyalist holdout in the West. During the early and high Tang period Tang extended from what was northern Korea to the Ferghana Valley and the Tarim basin, but after the An Lushan Rebellion Tang lost much of the west to the Tibetan empire. The loyalist state was born when the Tibetan empire imploded giving them the chance to proclaim a resurrection of a Tang state that rejoined the Tang. For their loyalty the Circuit was called "Guiyi" meaning "Return to Righteousness." After the Tang fell the Circuit still struggled on in a much diminished form. With the Tangut conquest the last ember of a "Tang" hold out was finally gone.

Tibetan nobles circa 848. Tibetans had played important roles in the region since the aftermath of the An Lushan Rebellion where Tang and Tibetan forces warred for a full century. With the Tangut conquest the region fell completely under Tangut rule until the kingdom's destruction during the Mongol conquest.

Above: Uighur Prince before the restored details of Manichean Priests: Qocho Kingdom (Xizhou.) Tangut conquest came like a wave and lapped hard against the Tarim Basin itself. Though the area was once part of Tang dynasty's west, after its wars with the Tibetan empire the region then fell into the hands of the Tang- allied Uighur Khaganate, then the Tang loyalist state of Guiyi Circuit, finally the Uighur Qocho Kingdom.

Music: Tiger Vanguard Theme

TRUE AMBITIONS- THE XIA WARPATH

Vanguard of the Tangut State. Athletic in his youth with a broad frame (Tanguts in general were known to be tall, swarthy, and valiant even during the Mongol empire's supremacy) Li Yuanhao dropped the pretense of vassalage and made Xia an empire. During his rule Xia rebelled against the Song and strict cultural norms were enforced for his Tangut populace. He also dropped the Song- given last name of Zhao and changed the Tangut imperial last name to Weiming 嵬名.

In 1028, Li Deming sent his son Li Yuanhao to attack the Ganzhou Uighur kingdom, for his victorious merits, Li Yuanhao was promoted to crown prince.  In 1032- the Liugu state of Xiliang that had slew Li Deming's father was annexed. Li Deming passed that year. Li Yuanhao's ascension would mark a radical and ambitious turn in policy. He levied all able bodied men between 15 and 60 years of age, providing him with a 150,000 strong army. With this maul in 1036 Li Yuanhao decisively crushed both the Ganzhou Uighur Kingdom and the Guiyi Circuit, incorporating them into his kingdom.

Western Xia general- possibly an Iron Sparrowhawk cavalryman. By the time Li Yuanhao's reign Xia was able to concentrated its dense number of soldiers and warhorses together into mobile hard hitting mauls. At its height of power the the emperor had 5000 crack guard cavalry and 3000 cataphract of Iron Cavalry (tieqi.) Elite cataphracts were said to be called Iron Sparrowhawks 铁鹞子

Gratified by this success by 1036 all of Hexi Corridor were consolidated under Tangut rule and would retain within it for the next nearly 2 centuries. In 1038 he declared his state an empire "Daxia" or "Great Xia." (Xia is usually known as "Xixia" or "Western Xia" in history to differentiate from the mythical "Xia" in ancient history and also the Xiongnu- led "Xia" state from the 16 Kingdoms period. Furthermore he proclaimed himself Emperor Jinzong of Xia and retroactively made his father and grandfathers founding Emperors of Xia. For this act of impudence from a previous vassal, Song cut off all trade with Xia and declared him an outlaw with a bounty on his head. Just as much, Li Yuanhao predicted this and invaded the Song- throwing the weight of the Xia war machine on an all out offensive to the east.

The elite cataphracts were called Iron Sparrowhawks 铁鹞子. From chapter 197 of "History of Song": it was mentioned these riders were all recruited from the sons of XiXia's aristocrats and their trusted companions and followers. The rider's armor is tied to the horse with ropes, thus he does not fall from the horse even when dead. Several fresh mounts were also brought along so that the unit can cover vast distances on campaigns.

 Of the many western wars fought against Xixia, an instance pertaining to the Iron Sparrowhawks recorded that the Song general Wang Ji engaged them at the Rabbit Fur River, the rebels (Xixia) surrounded his host with Iron Sparrowhawks, and bows and crossbows could not be used at such close range. Instead, Wang Ji's men then used the formation-cleaving swords to split open the Iron Sparrowhawks' armor and slit the horses' shanks. 

▷ 2 handed horse chopper- One of the ad hoc ways the Song countered the deployment of massed heavily armored cavalry was the use of massive 2 handed horse choppers for its foot soldiers. Often once the initial charge were resisted by the front row of pikemen these men would wade to the front and hack at the engaged enemy cavalry. 

After the Song cleavers waded through- the other horses galloped away, and those cavalrymen who fell of the cliffs to their death in the ravines could not be numbered. Ever since the beginning of the war in Shaanxi, only the Battle of the Rabbit Fur River has been a great victory, and it was thanks to the formation-cleaving sword. 

Numerous battles were launched by Xia against Song holds. 1040 Li Yuanhao laid siege to Yan'an in modern northern Shaanxi with over 100,000 Xia soldiers and was able to defeat a separated Song detachment some 9000 strong with 50,000 soldiers and capture its military deputy. Despite this victory Xia could not overwhelm the defenders before snowfall and had to pull back to more well defended entrenchments. Song later arrived with a sizeable army of 30,000 which was met with some strings of small scale Song victories, heartened by their gains they increased their march to chase down the Tanguts, however, Li Yuanhao was a brilliant strategist and flanked the Song army, destroying it.

Despite this victory, Song momentum did not stop, and Song deployed some 200,000 soldiers that garrisoned the border fortresses on rotation from the capital, making it impossible for Tanguts to seize Song cities. By 1041, the Tangut momentum was grinded to a halt and Song began to make incremental victories against the Xia. And with these mixed seesaw battles, Xia began to suffer heavy campaign losses. By 1042, Xia lost half of its invasion force to attrition still unable to take Song cities.

禁軍 jinjun lit: The  Forbidden Army. The Song dynasty's organization was highly centralized with much of the power reserved in the imperial court. During the Northern Song, half of the empire's army of 1 million soldiers was stationed in and around the imperial capital of Kaifeng, with the best being elite palace guards and metropolitan armies. In times of war they would be rotated to troubled fronts. Their maintenance was a costly affair, despite the fact that globally speaking Northern Song was the richest state in its age, the maintenance of a large imperial army with costly armor and weapons was arduously expensive. 

In truth Li Yuanhao's blitzkrieg found itself battered against a vast peer competitor. No longer was he able to deliver swift battles of annihilation over small states that could be quickly overwhelmed and only has few fortified cities and nearly impossible to replenish its numbers. Song for all of its ineptitudes were able to nullify him by making its cities unassailable and opted to wait and bleed him out. The strategy worked and Xia momentum was grinded to a halt. For this war, Song began to make extensive use of local auxiliaries, including the Qiang- a Sino- Tibetan people as scouts and raiders.

Xia were no longer able to easily overrun positions as easily as they had done with the smaller kingdoms of the Guiyi Circuit and Ganzhou Uighur kingdom. Additionally, with the vastness of the Song's holdings Song countered Xia advances with a series of scorched earth tactics that left the borderlands desolate and stymied Xia ability to conduct deep operations.

Liao intervention: Liao- smelling Song weakness increased the annual tribute they demanded from Song, but simultaneously, not wanting Xia to be a peer invaded Xia in 1044 with some 100,000 soldiers.

To outflank the Xia, Song even pleaded to its old nemesis Liao for aid. The Liao- also weary of Xia's inflated imperial pretensions agreed with the Song and launched a large invasion into Xia which was met with early strings of successes. However Xia eventually regrouped and launched a devastating counterattack that sent the Liao reeling back. Xia performances was such that Song spies monitoring the region reported that strings of carts that bore Liao corpses streamed back in defeat back to Liao. By the end all 3 sides were exhausted. Li Yuanhao sued for peace and the Song concluded a humiliating treaty with Xia, recognizing its statehood and even paying a large annual tribute to it. Xia was thus anointed as a peer. Song was humiliated, and although it returned to a posture of peace, it never forgot the transgression by Xia.

Song dynasty general in heavy armor. Song would return decades later for more.

With new reforms the dream to recover the west was born again.

LI YUANHAO'S REFORMS & XIA INERTIA

Despite the inertia of his forays against Song, Li Yuanhao was able to salvage the situation and extract the concession he hoped for. Just like his grandfather whose rebellion forced Song into legitimizing his position, he had done so now as a peer to the Song. Now there exist 3 kingdoms in what was medieval China. Liao, Song, and now Xia. Though the Xia exist as the smallest and weakest of the 3, it nonetheless officially became one of the great powers. Li Yuanhao would devote the rest of his reign in reforming the Xia state and setting his people's culture. 

His governance was a mix of separation to maintain a distinctive Tangut culture and script while adopting Han Chinese apparatus that kept the state well administered. He harshly mandated that Tangut men must keep their heads pates shaved under the pain of death and preserve their culture. During his tenure he also made ample use of Han administrators and fostered a well run bureaucracy. Personally fluent in Han Chinese as well as Tibetan he enjoyed and converted many Chinese works into the distinctive Tangut script. By nature a forceful man, his forcefulness would eventually destroy him. Having antagonized his prince and a clique of ministers they assassinated him. 

The priority of the Xia state had changed from conquest to consolidation. For the next 2 centuries Xia would try to balance its various neighbors. By which it meant Xia would be notoriously prone to switch sides at their leisure to keep a neighbor they feared at a disadvantage. However this made the Xia very duplicitous in the eyes of all of its neighbors and provoked the dreaded wrath from Genghis Khan himself.

RULE OF THE REGENT XIA EMPRESSES

The 2 Powerful Dowager Empress Liangs. During this period several weak Xia Emperors died in their 20s, there were 2 powerful Dowager Empresses both named Liang. The first was so powerful she kept her son imprisoned under house arrest then made him marry his cousin who also was called Liang. Both women controlled the major factions and ruled the court. To distinguish the 2 the latter is called the Lesser.

Immediately after Li Yuanhao's assassination, Xia fell into calamity, his remaining son was not just a child but a baby of 1 year old. During the baby's "rule" the government was in the hands of his mother the regent dowager empress. Sensing weakness- and doubtlessly itching for revenge the Liao invaded Xia in force. Without a charismatic warrior emperor has it had seen the past 3 generations, Xia was defeated and became a Liao vassal. During this time rival factions hijacked the court and slew his mother.

This boy (Yizong of Xia) did not amount to much, over a decade later he eventually matured into a young teenager who purged his palace rivals then set the sights on raiding Song territories, several raids were conducted against the Song in the 1060s with no serious gains and Song able to readily and repeatedly rebuke the Xia forces. Then he suddenly died in 1068 only 20 years of age. The court fell into the hands of his wife, Dowager Empress Liang (the Elder.)

Like so many steppe- led conquest dynasties there were severe infighting between the traditionalist old guards that wanted a warrior aristocracy and more nobility input on succession. And monarchs that wanted a secure system of primogeniture without tampering from the nobility and centralized imperial control that directly ruled through the bureaucratic apparatus and staffed by ministers they can elevate and demote at their leisure. 

His very young son did little better, most of the next emperor Huizong's rule was divided between heated factional infighting at court led by pro- Sinicization factions which revolved around him and pro- Tangutization traditionalist factions around his mother. The young emperor and his ministers wanted to Sinicize to have a more cohesive and centralized government while the old guards composed of Tangut noble warrior clans revolved around his mother and wanted their privileges and sway within the court preserved. Huizong tried to abolish Tangut traditions while elevating Han ones but were obstructed. Afterwards the Dowager Empress imprisoned her young son and he died at the age of 26. His death resulted in a civil war among the embittered cliques inside the kingdom.

Music: Such Wind! Powerful Indeed!

SONG CAME BACK FOR VENGEANCE- 5 ROUTE EXPEDITION AGAINST XIA

Art by Forky Xu. In 1081 the Song launched a simultaneous invasion of Xia from 5 armies that numbered over 300,000. Considering the Xia response later also amounted to 300,000 it was one of the biggest medieval battles in Eurasia. For comparison only a decade ago the pivotal battle of Manzikert was fought with the Byzantines fielding some 40,000 soldiers and Seljuks 30,000- 50,000.

However during it was during this time an old foe re- reared its vengeful head in force. While Xia descended into war Song had reformed itself under a new irridentist Emperor. Unlike his timid predecessors, the young Shenzong of Song was a dreamer and sought to restore Song prestige through battle. Furthermore Shenzong and the rest of the warhawks in the Song court had long blamed the decade of Xia raids into Song lands on Dowager Empress Liang's influence and saw her as particularly untrustworthy. With the chaos within Xia against her, some Xia factions reached out for Song support. 

Wang's centralization efforts included the implementation of a realm wide village militia system who would regularly be on call for service. They would also have to supply their own equipment thus greatly reduced the imperial burden in cost. In this context: the militia and village watch system provided a local defense force that can- when required, repel bandits and put down rebels, or buy time for the rescuing army. The reformer Wang Anshi himself had been in favor of bladed cleaver polearms for their excellence against armored cavalry and after this period the Song shifted out their shield wielding spearmen and replaced them with either dedicated pikemen or cleaver troops.

Art by Forky Xu

At the time the Song court was largely split between the conservatives headed by Sima Guang and reformists under Wang Anshi- with Shenzong valuing Wang's attempt for more imperial centralization over the empire. Wang's effort both raised a number of much needed garrison troops and his trade conflict with the Ly dynasty of Vietnam also caused a war with Vietnam in the late 1070s. It was a massive bloody war and both Song and Ly dynasty of Vietnam suffered staggering losses, eventually ending to a draw and negotiated peace. With the southern specter resolved, Shenzong turned his attention westward

Dreamer and ambitious irredentist. A personable sovereign Shenzong was cautious and modest but dreamed of strength and prosperity for his realm. He was born at a time where much of the empire's private sectors became monopolized under large estates, and through nepotism at court offices were sold often to these elites' sons and corruption was rife. Much of the tax burden were transferred on the poor peasants while tax revenue fell for the empire. In response He wanted to have a more personal rule and build up a welfare state with protective price controls, generous loans to small scale farmers- abolishment of corvees to have more specialized labors, a dedicated militia, and also recover lost frontiers.

An interesting trivia is that during his reign he received a diplomatic mission from the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas

Returning to the Xia theater: Shenzong- encouraged by flurry of his western governor's petitions eagerly agreed and made a declaration that treacherous ministers in Xia had usurped the throne and issued an edict to prepare for war in all directions. By summer 1081, Shenzong launched a large invasion of Xia with some 300,000 troops in five armies accompanied by an addition of 100,000 camp followers and laborers.

SHENZONG'S WAR- 5 ROUTE EXPEDITION AGAINST XIA

Shenzong's War: the 1081 Song invasion of Xia was massive and aimed to take advantage of the internal factionalism within Xia. For the invasion Shenzong ordered a 5 pronged invasion that in total numbered over 300,000 soldiers and more laborers all with the intended goal to race and capture the Xia capital at Xingqing and foster regime change. The Song early momentum was noteworthy, with particular gains like Xiazhou in the eastern part of the theater and in the key city of Lanzhou in the southwest (both areas marked with X) The great city of Lanzhou (yellow crescent) served as a vital lynchpin of the Hexi Corridor.

The Song made rapid early gains the key city of Lanzhou which acted as a shield against Song in the south was taken in only few months. Song made progress especially in the south which completely bypassed much of the Xia defenses along the Yellow River. Of particular note was the southern commander Liu Changzuo- a eunuch general whose own suicidal bravery disoriented Xia twice and allowed for continual pressure in flanking the Xia host and allowed for continuous Song momentum. 

Immovable As The Mountain: Heavy Song dynasty crossbowmen. Song discovered massed armor piercing crossbowmen were the best remedy for waves of heavy cavalry. Song crossbowmen were drilled to hold their position as if they were line infantry. The crossbowmen were protected by nearby archers and by the Southern Song dynasty they were also protected by very heavily armored infantry wielding halberds and horse choppers. 

Boldly, Liu went as far as to recommend leading a direct attack against the Xia capital from his western flanking position, however his fellow commander the imperial uncle rebuffed his proposal. By November 1081, Xia abandoned its eastern holds in the Ordos Plateau, losing Xiazhou. At that point Song had occupied more than 2,000 li of Xia territories. 

Tang Eunuch General Gao Lishi (Above) Credit 1/6 Figure- pose & photography: 浪人刘小黑: Of the 5 commanders 3 were generals eunuchs with prior experience in command in the west. Of the 2 remaining 1 was an experienced regional commander, the last was the maternal- uncle of the Emperor with experience against Tibetan warlords. Almost all of the commanders had prior experience in the west against the Tibetan theocratic state of Tsongkha.

Eunuchs had typically been reviled in Chinese history, especially with those familiar with the fall of Han and Tang dynasties. And those outside of China or East Asia at large might find the notion of them as commanders strange. It should not be as strange as one might imagine: namely you might have already know 1 or several of them by name or their contribution to key eras in history. Zheng He- before was appointed admiral and entrusted with the Ming treasure fleet had closely aided in the Ming Yongle Emperor Zhu Di's wars of usurpation, Narses~ Justinian's eunuch general was vital in the fluctuating conquest of Italy. In China especially during this period they occupied a context from a prior era. 

In the wake of the chaotic An Lushan Rebellion- the north eastern portion of Tang was carved up by many warlords and the Tang Emperors began to severely distrust military- governors with large hereditery fiefs. What's more they also distrusted the bureaucrat ministers whose alliance often shifted between the imperial court and the warlords. As a remedy they turned to their own eternal servants and tutors- the eunuchs to be the heads of the reformed imperial army- Shence Army 神策军 (lit. "Divine Stratagem Army") which numbered some 150,000 and protected Chang'an. For a time- especially during the reign of the diligent Xianzong Emperor, they were vital in stabilizing mid Tang and at one time nearly retook all of realm from the warlords.

However as various Song armies closed in around the Xia heartlands, uneven progress and coordination broke down among the Song commanders. 3 out of the 5 armies eventually were on the brink of starvation. When faced with difficulties, the Song commanders failed to communicate and reinforce each other, bitter accusations and infighting erupted between the commanders as the momentum stalled. Meanwhile the livelihood for the Song soldiers and besiegers became hellish in the arid and barren lands, exposed to the harsh desert winters thousands froze to death. At multiple times Song generals threatened to execute those in charge of food supply trains.

Music: Who Said Women Are Soft Hearted?

Seeing this opportunity, the Xia began to launch continuous harassment attacks with their light skirmish cavalry and on December, Xia breached dykes along the Yellow River and flooded the camp of 2 combined Song armies causing a retreat. Unable to sustain them through the winter Shenzong ordered a retreat to conserve strength for a renewed offensive next year. However during the pull out the Xia conducted ambushes against the Song columns and it became a rout. 

XIA COUNTERMEASURES- THE OTHER SIDE

During the early phase of this invasion Empress Dowager Liang was flooded with petitions from young Xia generals to immediately launch a counterattack and crash against the Song. However the old generals advised that with the lopsided imbalance Xia should adopt a conservative war footing- it should abandon the large tract of the east thus luring in the bloated Song armies then reduce them through attrition. A massive army was required to dislodge the Song invasion which at the time Xia cannot muster. 

The way Chabi was depicted in Netflix's Marco Polo had sometimes looked more like Tangut royal women than Mongolian noblewomen. Additional references here.

Her generals pointed out that Song was in extremely adverse territory with long stretches of arid steppe and parching sand and not enough food - not even enough fodder for their war horses. Much of Xixia was already scorch earth for anyone stranded in it. After deliberately abandoning the large tract of eastern part of the frontier, the Dowager Empress then issued edicts ordering the best troops at hand (some 100,000) be deployed in all key walled cities and fortresses around the imperial heartland. Thus each fortification could only be taken at great cost to the Song. Meanwhile light Xia cavalry would be deployed extensively and aggressively raid any Song food transports to prevent their continual foothold. Once provisions ran out in this barren land with no further means of supplies Song inevitably must pull out. By 1082 the precarious position of Xia changed. 

PHASE 2- SIEGE OF YONGLE FORTRESS

Disappointed by the ephemeral gains of the previous year, in 1082 the still hopeful Shenzong believed that a change in strategy would work in Song's favor. Rather than sending out a disorganized hydra this time the Song would send a concentrated imperial field army supplemented by imperial guards and local garrison troops. "History of Song"- composed in the Yuan dynasty recorded that Shenzong appointed his favored minister Xu Xi as commander at the head of 25,000 of the Forbidden Army 禁軍 jinjun (Imperial Army,) another commander came at the head of 4,000 imperial guards, supplemented with 40,000 garrison troops in total around 70,000. However this number should be taken with somewhat of a grain of salt for reasons that we shall explain later.

A Peerless Scholar: the 48 year old Xu Xi was one of Wang Anshi's favored supporters and one of Shenzong's personal favorites, hailing from a prestigious scholar's family Xu Xi proved himself to be a keen scholar on many fields and was rapidly promoted through various imperial offices.

At the mountainous border beside Xia, Xu Xi constructed a massive fortress called Yongle 永乐 (lit. "Everjoy") the fortress was completed in September 6th. After which a portion of the garrison was redeployed. 10 days later the Xia host then appeared, except in overwhelming numbers. This time the Xia came with 300,000 soldiers. A remarkable episode recorded that while the massive Xia host was crossing a nearby river a Song subcommander insisted that Xu should not waste this critical opportunity to inflict a sudden attack on the Xia, however Xu Xi refused. 

Yongle Fortress was raised in a precarious position, surrounded on 3 sides by cliffs and without natural springs nearby. 

After crossing the river the Xia swiftly surrounded the fortress on all sides and cut off all water that directed into it. "History of Song" - recorded that the desperate Song soldiers attempted to dig for water within the fortress but none were to be found and "most of the soldiers" died to thirst. Nearby Song commanders- including several from the previous year's five route campaign tried to come to the fortress's rescue but Xia prevented their arrival. Then during a night on the 20th it rained heavily, the Xia took advantage and broke several nearby dykes around the fortress. 

The wall broke down and the Xia poured in vast numbers and slaughtered everyone they could find, including Xu Xi and nearly all of the commanders, the few commanders that managed to escape made out naked. The estimate of Song losses varies, more liberal versions went to state that 200,000 Song soldiers and laborers and camp followers perished, and more lurid versions stated that when Shenzong himself heard the news of the loss at night he was so stricken that he lost his calm and the next day in front of his attending ministers he wept. Chinese historians in Taiwan have skeptically placed the losses at a more conservative 20,000-30,000, citing that the 200,000 figure were more than likely invoked and greatly exaggerated during the heated infighting between conservatives and reformers at court. Paul Forage who covered this war in particular placed the Song losses at 17,300. 

It is still accurate to point out that after the loss of Yongle and the next few years, Shenzong's ardor for warfare was greatly tampered. The depressed emperor would die in relative youth at the age of 38 in 1085. Shortly after his death the heads of both the reformers and the conservatives: Wang Anshi and Sima Guang both died as well. Despite this the next 40 years the Song could would be plagued with factional infighting between the 2 cliques and the winning side often resorted to mass demotion of the rival faction.

LANZHOU- WON BUT LOST

After the loss of Yongle, Xia attempted multiple times trying to recapture Lanzhou from the Song. However each time the smaller and embattled Song garrison rebuffed audacious Xia assaults. After multiple failures, Xia tried again to take Lanzhou in 1084 but was forced to retreat yet again.

Death Knell (literally) - After Shenzong's death in 1085 the conservative party blamed the reformers for having stoked the late emperor's naive bellicosity and irredentist fervor. The war by this point had winded to an expensive drain on the treasury and disappointment. In order to placate Xia in peace, Lanzhou, which was won by the Song and kept in Song hands with fierce resistance despite repeated Xia assaults were ceded to Xia along with 4 fortresses.

ENTRENCHMENT- SONG STRATEGIC REMEDIES

After the conclusion of Shenzong's war Song and Xia resumed a state of unease watchfulness of each other. Song had to pay a high annual tribute to Xia. Notably right after Shenzong's death his de facto counterpart in Xia Empress Dowager Liang (the Elder) also died. Bizarrely^ as previously mentioned, her successor's moniker is also Liang, and now Dowager Empress Liang: for the purpose of distinguishing her we shall refer her as Liang the Lesser.

During this time Zhang Yu 章楶, a veteran Song commander who had extensive dealings with Xia in previous campaigns petitioned for a change of overall Song strategy. Noting that in multiple previous conflicts Xia often had troubles against fortified Song cities he suggested a new policy of creeping entrenchment.

Veteran general, governor, and scholar. Zhang Yu noted the pattern of Xia difficulties against fortified Song cities (Yongle was a freshly built fort) and proposed a new strategy of building a large series of mutually reinforcing forts along the Xia Song border that would entrench Song positions at key passes and river valleys, then attack the Xia economy via sanctions and cessation of tributes.

Despite his exceptional tactical instincts, Zhang Yu's suggestion was strategic rather than tactical. Noting the prowess of Xia cavalry Zhang suggested building up a series of well protected mutually reinforced cities near the shared border. Agreeing to his reasonings the new Song Emperor Zhezong then stopped the payment of tributes to the Xia in 1096. Then from 1097 to 1099, the Song army constructed 40 fortifications across the Ordos plateau.

BATTLE OF PINGXIA FORTRESS

Provoked, Xia soon responded and in 1098 Dowager Empress Liang the Lesser launched a massive invasion with 100,000 soldiers against the Song front. This time the Song stratagem paid off. Despite the large invasion force the Xia army encountered heavy snow on their trek and by the time they had arrive they were exhausted. 

Furthermore Song defenses proved to be well built and Xia were unable to dislodge the Song. After weathering through repeated Xia assaults, the Song finally responded. 

Zhang then waited and sent out a surprise light cavalry assault at night and captured both Xia generals Weiming Amai and Meiledubu along with their clansmen and routed the Xia army. The victory was widely celebrated in Song and the Song mastermind Zhang Yu was personally feted by the Emperor and promoted to Privy Councilor, a key palace scholar, and General Counselor. 

XIA POSITION REDUCED- GREATEST SONG EXTENT

In 1099 Dowager Empress Liang the Lesser was poisoned in a palace coup which left Xia without a capable leader, Xia soon pleaded for peace. Song initially rebuffed the offer content with their superior hand and Xia's vulnerable position. However Liao offered (insisted) to mediate and peace was accepted. 

During this brief upsurge- Song took the initiative to finish off some minor players in the area. Four years later in 1103 Song annexed the small Tibetan Theocratic state of Tsongkha (in today's Ping'an) and spent the following year weeding out native resistance. Xia- outraged by this buffer state which stood between Song and its southern border soon reverted to war and launched another concentrated assault against the Song. However because the Song had well entrenched the area by this time, Xia invasion was shattered and the Song held their ground.

Northern Song (and Song in general) reached its greatest territorial extent at this time. Although the Song never managed to regain the coveted and contested Sixteen Prefectures from Liao in the northeast, in the northwest at this moment Song reached a strong position while Xia was thrown into internal turmoil.   

Unable to prevail against the new series of creeping Song entrenchments Xia eventually devolved into violence and contented itself in slaughtering Song towns and butchering the populace there. Despite this for the time being Song was in an upsurge.

TREMORS

Despite this rare external respite. The momentary Song fortune was about to be irrevocably changed. Within the heartlands, due to unchecked corruption and grievous popular discontent, several rebellious would erupt within the heart of the empire. 

Even more so, another rebellion beyond the Song border would change the political landscape of the whole of East Asia: the Jurchen vassals of Liao had rebelled against their masters in 1115.

JOIN US THE NEXT CHAPTER AS WE COVER THE CLIMACTIC FALL OF NORTHERN SONG AND THE BIOGRAPHY OF ONE OF SONG'S MOST STUBBORN SONS. THE CAMPAIGNS OF YUE FEI AWAITS.

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