Song Dynasty (960- 1279) Military Overview Part 2- Conservatives VS Reformers: 宋代军事概要 2- 北宋强硬守旧派对新法

Art by liu bo 刘博. 

Music: Mutual Vigilance 

PART 1: READ HERE

Because of the constant pressure Northern Song faced- as well as its mixed records of heavy imperial expenditure on the military and defeats on the battlefield: there were frequent debates in the Song imperial court regarding directions to its defense.

CONSERVATIVES VS REFORMERS: SIMA GUANG & WANG ANSHI

Northern Song dynasty at a glance: Northern Song (Red) and its 2 main regional rivals: the Khitan- led Liao Dynasty (Gold) to its northeast, and the Tangut- led kingdom of Xixia (lit. "Western Xia": in Gray) in the northwest. All 3 were major players by the end of 7 decades of post- Tang civil war and anarchy known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. During these times, the already strong Khitans in the northeast gained momentum and made ambitious forays into central China. It was also at these times Xixia made their ambitious bid in the west.

Major Northern Song political factions: though the Song scholar-officials all were raised to their stations from the Confucian tradition, because of the challenges faced by the empire competing ways of thinking nonetheless began to diverge and coalesce into different factions at court. Conservatives were led by the erudite polymath Sima Guang (the author of the immense work of Zizhi Tongjian which laboriously documented the history from the end of the Spring & Autumn period (Confucius) all the way to the Song dynasty itself. As a polymath Guang was a preeminent imperial scholar, in charge of the Bureau of Military Affairs and had the ears of both large body of ministers at court as well as the Emperor.

Art by Christen Abma. Tang | Song era opulent official hall. 

Sima Guang was an arch conservative in almost the Zhou- sense, and believed that a perfect, harmonious (and deeply hierarchical) static society requires each class to adhere to their station and through propriety perform their expected roles. In short, a perfect society is like a mechanical clock, obedient, predictable, virtuously automated. Guang went as so far as to discourage commerce because such men and by extension such a class usually disrupts and changes the static social order. In matters of foreign policy Sima Guang wanted to maintain a balance with the Liao and Western Xia.

Song dynasty polymath Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower with armillary sphere on roof. Internally it was operated by gears and chain drive. (Top) An illustrated model of Su Song's Clock Tower. The original diagram of Su's book showing the inner workings of his clocktower show on top right. 

THE REFORMIST CHANCELLOR: "NEW POLICIES"

In contrast to Sima Guang's career, where the young polymath's exam results allowed him to skip to the highest rungs of the empire to serve the imperial court as if plucked from a nimbus. Wang Anshi's rise was that of a man constantly solving local technical problems until he worked his way up the local provincial posts and made his way up to the imperial court itself. A polymath with keen eyes for details as well as deep sympathies for the struggling peasantry, Wang had a bone to pick and sought to pry power away from the ivory tower scholars in the imperial capital. His constant complaints were ignored for 10 years until in 1067 the 6th Emperor Shenzong ascended the throne.

Wang's patron Shenzong- unlike his recent predecessors was an ambitious Emperor and his centralization efforts stemmed from his desire to expand the Song realm. Reformers existed well before Wang Anshi with the likes of Chancellors such as Fan Zhongyan who sought to provide monetary and promotional incentives to improve local performances and general recruitments. However his efforts were stymied by the conservatives and most of his trunch of reforms were rescinded on 1045. 

By the reign of Shenzong large tracts of farmlands fell under the hands of large estates, and through nepotism at court (encouraged by the conservatives who often supports letting them attain high positions due to recommendations rather than through the Imperial Examinations) what's more because of these connections they were able to bypass their tax oblications. As such tax revenues began to decline and the already exhausted court had to also place additional burdens on the peasants. Wang Anshi was appointed Chancellor in 1069.

FARMING AND ORGANIZATIONAL REFORMS

Wang's policies saw each part of society as part of a greater whole, and thus the state must take a more holistic and all-encompassing part in governance. He instituted a sweeping series of agrarian and economical reforms designed to break up the monopolies of the large estate land owners and also tried to implement heavy- handed government intervention to stimulate growth. Want believed that the state should intervene to stabilize prices and offer loan incentives. 

Song dynasty Kaifeng. During the Song commerce and learning blossomed across the realm. Technologically Song dynasty took China to new heights. 

The state- loan plans lowered the tax requirements and allowed loans to peasants at an interest rate of 20%. It had the economic engineering incentives to serve as an independent channel between the government and the small farmers bypassing large estates and exploitative landowners that monopolized the fields. 

The private incentive also boosted individual productivity thus at the same produced better harvests and by extension higher tax revenue.

(Top) Merry Tea Sellers- Song Dynasty.

Wang believed that labors as a whole should be more specialized, instead of corvees labors which are intermittent and unreliably dispersed too thin Wang wanted to turn talented pools of workers into dedicated professional workers. By extension this will create a pool of much more specialized labors for the court to deploy for its developments and administration. With this imitative he disburdened the peasants from corvee obligations and encouraged local governments to sponsor specialized professionals for infrastructural and public projects. Though those whose corvee days and labor were spared Wang did institute a payment for all households. To combat price gouging and price fixing my guilds of powerful merchants Wang implemented measures where the court would intervene to regulate the price of vital commodities. 

Music: The Teahouse

Despite external hardships and individual struggles. It should be mentioned that livelihood within the Song dynasty at large when compare to the rest of the age was prosperous and vigorous. Crucially, during this era including Wang Anshi's governance: China's population doubled in size between the 10th and 11th centuries. What's more with internal stability its economy exploded and flourished to immense levels, Song dynasty became the richest state in the world, equal to several that of Europe as well as continuously one of the most scientifically advanced. 

It's subjects' lives were also well off: Song cities were well lit and its public enjoyed a vibrant restaurant culture. Various stratas of its society enjoyed relaxation in tea houses, public festivals that featured extensive fireworks. Fairs with acrobats and puppeteers, theaters, up scale brothels and its scholar class enjoyed reading clubs/ music/ antique societies. 

ATTEMPT AT A MILITIA SYSTEM

The aim was to make even the smallest settlements- the villages and rural towns 乡 strong enough to handle portion of its self defense. 

In matters of foreign policy- Wang like his patron Shenzong was an irredentist. Both wanted Song to regain and expand to Tang- levels of natural defenses along the empire's borders and regain vital pastures for war horse. Within this context it is easy to see why both strongly favored a (further) centralized state to achieve these aims. On the military front: Wang- in departure to the previous imperial- army relied posture instead implemented a compulsory realm- wide militia system. 

This system is not new to the era, and similar militia | community system had been introduced by the likes of Shang Yang during his radical reforms of Qin to give greater defense integrity to the state.

In order to have grassroot local security and relieve local government of administrative duties, the Baojia System was born. The aim was to make even the smallest settlements- the villages and rural towns 乡 strong enough to handle portion of its self defense. 10 households form a "Jia" 甲 and 10 Jia form a "Bao" (lit "Watch") 保 from which assigned men among them will report as militias. 

The Northern Song imperial court withheld an overwhelming advantage in numbers. The rest of its military were dispersed across the various frontier garrisons and fortresses. In this context: the militia and village watch system provided a local defense force that can- when required, repel bandits and put down rebels, or buy time for the rescuing army.

Art by Forky Xu

Individually such local bands can hunt down marauding bandits and in close local coordination can resist and crush rebels. When interlinked such a matrix could provide a radiating web that is able to buy time until the imperial army arrives. These men also served as an adjacent reserve pool. During Shenzong's reign the Song waged several wars in multiple directions against specters both from the west and the south.

Song era temple hall painting depicting crestfallen defeated soldiers. In this portion an armored scout armed with bow, sword and spear leads his fellow soldiers while they- with one carrying a wounded comrade follows shortly behind.

▷ 2 handed horse chopper- Aside from massed deployment of well drilled crossbowmen, one of the ad hoc ways the Song countered the deployment of massed heavily armored cavalry was the use of massive 2 handed horse choppers for its foot soldiers. Often once the initial charge were resisted by the front row of pikemen these men would wade to the front and hack at the engaged enemy cavalry. Wang Anshi himself had been in favor of bladed cleaver polearms and during his tenure and after his office the Song shifted out their shield wielding spearmen and replaced them with either dedicated pikemen or cleaver troops.

SPECTERS OF THE SOUTH

Art by Shuai Zhang: Song dynasty infantryman in campaign gear. He wears a rough coat over his armor and he wears a thatched raincoat made of straws called Suōyī 蓑衣, and carries a ring- pommeled cleaver sword. He wears a large wicker hat over his head. The wicker hat were frequently worn by southern river's fishermen, and even in the 20th century were still widely worn by soldiers during the Long March in the Chinese Civil War.

When Shenzong ascended the throne calamity erupted in the south. What would be today's northern Vietnam was once part of the Tang empire, however during the ensuing Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Vietnam eventually broke off under native rule, it was able to repel the Song a century prior. 

Art by Cao Viet (Đại Việt imperial army of the Trần dynasty by the time of First Mongol–Vietnamese War in 1258)

However by the reign of Shenzong, Wang Anshi's reforms directly caused friction between the 2 states. At this time the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt (Vietnam) was led by a young and very ambitious Emperor Lý Nhân Tông. During Wang's period of influence trade between the 2 states were severed. Wang's reforms had changed much of the tributary relations of several of the southern tribes that shared a border between Song and Lý. Wang's policies allowed for a more direct tap into their exchange, however this threatened Lý's established relationships with these tribes. Historically Đại Việt had acted as a hegemon with these tribes and the Song reforms threatened the traditional tributary system where they pledged vassalage to the Lý, and Lý feared that the disruption of this system may upend the patronage altogether. What's more these tribes had a tendency to switch sides, turning their capriciousness into a security issue for the Lý. 

Song pavise shieldbearer. They often form the first screen in many Song formations. Song encountered Vietnamese javelin wielding troops in their clashes. During this time both states made a scramble to secure the vassalage of various native Chieftains whose tribes laid on the borderlands. In later centuries Song would replace such shieldbearers with heavily armored soldiers fully encasesd in armor and dedicated long pikes.

Furthermore, Wang Anshi's policies to recruit militias eventually gathered around 44,500 soldiers in the south, which the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt saw as a threat. Instead, Lý Nhân Tông launched a preemptive invasion of the Song in 1075 with a large army of 80,000~ 100,000 soldiers in 2 prongs headed for the great city of Yongzhou (what is today's Nanning) in Guangxi. One commanded by Lý Thường Kiệt to seek out the Song army in the field and another by Tôn Đản to besiege Yongzhou. 

SACK OF YONGZHOU

The invasion came as a surprise to the Song and Yongzhou was swiftly encircled. The Song reinforcement army in the field was caught by Lý Thường Kiệt and repelled. However Yongzhou- even when deprived of their rescue stubbornly resisted. The governor Su Jian with only 3,000 men held on and the siege lasted far longer than expected for 42 days, grinding Lý momentum to a halt and inflicting significant numbers of casualties. 

Above: Art by 耿宇昂. Below: Art by yuqi-DAKE

Enraged at the stall and the taken casualties, the besiegers put the city to the sword. Before the city was lost to the besiegers Su Jian committed suicide with 36 members of his family. The Lý soldiers then proceeded in slaughtering (traditional sources) 58,000 of the city's inhabitants and put the city to the torch, taking all of the valuables they could find. What's more unlike many historical instances where statistics were often inflated, there are sources (including those by Vietnamese authors) put the number of dead close to 100,000. Instead of pressing further, the Lý returned south, content with their victory with cartloads of treasures and towing thousands of captured prisoners. 

SONG RETALIATION 

In 1076, the Song responded with a much more serious response this time by tapping its southern vassals of Khmer Empire and Champa to attack Lý from multiple directions. Song then deployed a large army of 300,000 soldiers under general Guo Kui 郭逵 that entered into Đại Việt territories. The The Song quickly managed to retain Quảng Nguyên and then drove deep headed for the Lý capital. The initial advance was momentous, and Guo Kui defeated multiple Vietnamese forces along the way. In 1077, the Song destroyed two more Vietnamese armies and marched towards their capital, Thăng Long, which corresponds to the current city of Hanoi. 

Art by Cao Viet (General Lý Thường Kiệt) : centuries later the Song would also employ such tactics of planting stakes on the riverbed against the Mongols during the heavy siege of Fancheng- Xiangyang. After the Song this area where Lý Thường Kiệt trapped the Song crossing was also where Đại Việt trapped and defeated the Mongols later. 

At a key river crossing (Như Nguyệt River) the Lý general Lý Thường Kiệt was able to inflict a trap on the Song by placing wooden stakes in the riverbed, including some 1,000 casualties. But Guo Kui outmanuvered this trap by circling his army through the neighboring region of Phu Luong, where he later managed to defeat Lý Thường Kiệt's troops in a major battle. For a moment, all seemed lost. 

The Lý- Song war was defined by extreme level of bloodshed. At various times each side was able to catch the other in a vulnerable position and inflict significant casualties on the other. However at its end both armies (and states) became heavily bloodied and agreed to peace. Around half of the Song army died to disease 

As the Song troops went on the offensive, toward the Lý capital tried again to muster a defense between the way. Despite this, the Song troops broke through his defense line and their cavalry advanced to within a few kilometers of the capital. Cornered and zealous, the Vietnamese launched a ferocious counterattack that halted the Song advance. Lý Thường Kiệt then regrouped and counterattacked the Song inflicting heavy casualties~ achieved with its own heavy casualties on Lý's side, including the death of 2 princes who drowned during battle. By this point the 2 sides have been heavily bloodied, and Thuong Kiet made peace proposals to Guo which was agreed. By this time Lý was fighting a 3 front war and there were fronts the Lý army keenly needed to stabilize. 

To conclude the peace Emperor Lý Nhân Tông apologized for the sacking of Yongzhou the 2 sides agreed to end the war. Lý returned the captured prisoners, both sides exchanged war prisoners. Over several diplomatic exchanges by 1084 the Lý relinquished their conquered territories and the area around what was Yongzhou and Song relinquished all of their gains in the invasion and withdrew, border was clearly demarcated. Interesting to note: the current borders between China and Vietnam are almost exactly unchanged as that of the 1084 border. 

THE SPECTER OF THE WEST

Initially the Tanguts were semi-nomadic warriors that served various powers. Their men wore the distinctive tonsured pate, their state was a curious contradiction. They preferred both Han Chinese institutions and Tibetan theocratic teachings. Thus the state was a mix of nomadic warriors, Han administrators, and Tibetan lamas. The Li rulers revered the memories of the Tang emperors while implemented a meritocratic Confucian system for its governance. 

Only one generation before Shenzong came to power the Tangut- led kingdom of Xi Xia (Western Xia) under its ferocious warrior emperor Jinzong rose in rebellion in the west. Though small in size the kingdom quickly became the sole hegemon in the west by its ability to concentrate its forces and defeats its rivals in detail. Like the Khitan- led Liao, the Tanguts were excellent horsemen and Jinzong concentrated his dense number of soldiers and warhorses together into mobile hard hitting mauls, across the realm Xia had hundreds of thousands of horsemen for operations and the the emperor had 5000 crack guard cavalry and 3000 cataphract of Iron Cavalry (tieqi.) 

Numerous battles were launched by Xia against Song holds. Though the Song were able to contend them in the field with mixed results the Song were unable to corner and destroy the Xia army nor could Xia overrun Song positions as easily as they had done with the smaller kingdoms of the Guiyi Circuit and Ganzhou Uyghur kingdom. 

The Tangut Comet: The Tanguts had served as crucial Tang cavalry auxiliaries in previous centuries and were rewarded with the privilege of the Tang imperial last name of "Li," they were bit players during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. When Song cemented its hold in northern China they served as Song vassals however raided Song borders, in time they slowly migrated and conquered westward. During the meteoric reign of the founding emperor Jinzong and his father, both men made immense strides in expanding Xia reach westward, eventually nearly tripling Tangut domains and annexing states such as the Guiyi Circuit and the Uyghur Kingdom. 

In desperation the Song even pleaded to the Liao for aid. The Liao then launched a large invasion into Xia which was met with early success. However Xia eventually regrouped and launched a devastating counterattack that sent the Liao reeling back. By the end the Song concluded a humiliating peace with Xia, recognizing its statehood and even pay annual tributes to it. Xia was thus anointed as a peer.

Under Shenzong- the Song court again dreamed of reclaiming the west 

RENEWED WARS IN THE WEST

THIS SECTION WILL SEE A DEDICATED FOLLOWING CHAPTER BECAUSE IT SPANS BOTH WANG ANSHI AND SHENZONG'S TENURE AS WELL AS AFTER IT. STAY TUNED FOR THE NEXT CHAPTER.

Shenzong's Wars (1081–1085): though internally this framework provided a consistency of local tranquility. Externally Shenzong was responsible for throwing the weight of the Song state against Xia in the west. The Lanzhou area in the Hexi Corridor had for centuries remained a vital chokepoint. Compared to the Song performance a generations ago Shenzong's campaign was more successful- paving the way for initiative to be on the Song's side. However after 1082  momentum would even with Song defeats. After the upset the Xia attempted multiple times of recapturing Lanzhou. Despite this, the Song retained their foothold but it became a great drain. 

FACTIONS & LAWFARE

Unfortunately for Wang, extremely heavy political infighting undid much of his reform attempts. When Wang was accepted into the imperial favor many prominent conservatives- including the outraged Sima Guang protested by quiting in 1070 re entrenching themselves in Louyang as their ideological stronghold. This left Wang in a strong position at Kaifeng drafting his policies. In 1074, a massive famine gripped northern China drove many farmers off their lands. Their circumstances were made worse by the debts they had incurred from the seasonal loans granted under Wang's reform initiatives. Many local officials insisted on collecting the loans as the farmers were leaving their land which further compounded the crisis. 

Lawfare: a war of appointments and banishments. The partisan rivalries at court were fierce. Both during this era and the next 40 years whenever the reformers or the conservatives gained majority over the other they were not above mass demotions and exiling of their rivals from court to the frontiers and backwaters of the empire. Numerous times ministers adjacent to either parties were caught in the crossfire and were punished by the lawfare.

The political blowback was immense, and though Wang still had the emperor's favor, he resigned in 1076. By the end of Wang's tenure he was deeply unpopular. However Shenzong took over as the main implementor of the new policies until his death in 1085. 

WANG'S POLICY ROLLED BACK

With Shenzong's death in 1085 Sima Guang was recalled to court and appointed to lead the government anew. In the months that followed nearly all of Wang's New Policies were incrementally repealed and abolished. Wang Anshi would die 1 year later, however Sima Guang did not live long after, he also died in the same year. With Guang's death the conservative faction split up and the reformers and the conservatives continued to bicker for the next 40 years with heated gridlock and lawfare. 

Death Knell (literally) - After Shenzong's death the conservative party blamed the reformers for having stoked the late emperor's naive bellicosity and irredentist fervor. The war by this point had winded to an expensive drain on the treasury and disappointment. In order to placate Xia in peace, Lanzhou, which was won by the Song and kept in Song hands with fierce resistance despite repeated Xia assaults were ceded to Xia along with 4 fortresses.

PART 3: CONTINUED HERE

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