Sui Dynasty 6th Century Chinese Heavy Armor: 隋朝段文振甲胄

Reenactor: 关宁铁骑

Armorer: Cold Light Armor (寒光甲胄工作室)

Music: Battlefield (Zide Guqin Studio)

A reconstructed Sui dynasty heavy armor from the recently excavated tomb of 6th century Sui general Duan Wenzhen 段文振. The armor posses features that were very rarely seen in Chinese armor- namely: prominent solid helmet cheekpieces (Chinese open faced helmets often at most have flexible lamellar cheekpieces or uses oversized neck guards) - giving it a silhouette that more resembles contemporary Central Asian states such as those of White Huns, Turks, and Eastern Rome. 

The solid cheekpieces enabled them to be swept upward, forming wing shapes during marches and low intensity lulls. The body armor is quite typical of those inherited later by the Tang dynasty. Other variants of these helmets persisted well into the Tang dynasty as well.

 

TOMB OF DUAN WENZHEN

Inspiration: one of the murals of guards showing unmistakable cheekpiece over lamellar aventails that protects the neck and shoulders below. The design also recalled that of Avar helmets from the period with the possible inclusion of domed top and brow piece. Such designs are commonly found throughout Eurasia. Late Han armor already exhibit such general constructions- for reference helmet from Cao Cao's Wei in 3 Kingdoms era.

Recently, the family tomb complex of Duan Wenzhen, a high-ranking military officer and minister of war during the late Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD), was discovered in August 2022 in Taojia village, Weicheng district of Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, China during local construction work. The tomb- which consisted that of his sons and grandsons was well preserved, and was notable for containing 144 pottery figurines and an unmistakable Tang dynasty epitaph marking the identity of the entombed figures. In all, the tomb marked as it one of the most significant high-ranking Sui burials ever discovered.

Even after being looted in ancient times, the Duan family tomb complex remains an invaluable archaeological resource. The tomb's extant structure, combined with surviving relics such as epitaphs, stone gates, murals, jade, and pottery figurines, provides a rich repository of information. This evidence is crucial for analyzing the culture, economy, ceremonial practices, and official ranks of the Northern Zhou and Sui dynasties, while also shedding significant light on the period's societal transformations and the nature of its hereditary aristocracy.

More detailed modern illustration by 咪咪妈的刘sir.

CONTEXT: DUAN WENZHEN

Duan Wenzhen was born in the 6th century at the closing days of the Northern Dynasties- a long period since the ethnic Han-led Jin dynasty was driven south due to the extreme heavy fighting in the north whereby a dozen none- Han nomadic peoples, collectively called the 5 Hu- or "Five Barbarians" took over the north and vied for supremacy among themselves in a period known as the 16 Kingdoms. 

An ethnographic political map of the 5 Hus (the 5 "Barbarians" consisting of the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang peoples) - it should be noted that although some western academia frames the ordeal similar to Barbarian at the Gates scenario the Roman Empire faced 2 centuries later in the 5th century whereby Western Rome fell, it was not entirely the picture. Although China indeed had unassimilated foreign people groups from outside of the walls (such as the Xianbei) by this time, there were many long assimilated insider "barbarian" peoples- such as the Xiongnu etc that had long pledged service to the Han and acted as auxiliary during Eastern Han, 3 Kingdoms period under Cao Wei, and Jin as well. Therefore the 16 Kingdoms period was largely more similar to assimilated Germans generals inside the Roman empire vying among themselves to control the spoils of an empire from within and the Northern Wei more similar to that of the Frankish hegemony.

Late: while a procession of unified Han- led remnants persisted in the south- the north was largely dominated by a series of none Han, nomadic- lead dynasties- the most notable among them were Former Qin- which briefly and dynamically unified all of the north under 1 kingdom, but was undone within 1 generation, to be later followed by the more sophisticated Xianbei- led Northern Wei which did continuously rule a unified north for some 150 years. However Wei too succumbed to the ravages of time and internal pressures and was split into 2 parts. By the 6th century there were 2 northern states, Northern Zhou in the west and Northern Qi in the east. It was in this world Duan was born.

The Sui dynasty reconstruction displaying the upswept appearance of cheekpieces

Northern Zhou boasted several early dynamic conquerors, however despite this early strong footing it was externally challenged by the powerful Gokturks- which capriciously backed either of the Northern Chinese states off balance against the other. To the northeast, Goguryeo, although it was some time after its golden age it sill remained a strong state. To the south- a southern Han- led remnant state of Chen still remained. It was in this world Duan Wenzhen was born. 

His grandfather Duan Shou had served as a governor during the Northern Wei, and his father Duan Wei and served as the governor of 4 prefectures during this Northern Zhou dynasty. In his youth, Duan Wenzhen was a strong and brave soldier. He was also reported to be upright and well educated about worldly affairs earning admiration far and wide among his peers. When Northern Zhou embarked on an aggressive conquest of a key mountain fortress province of Jinzhou of Northern Qi in the east (controlling the Taihang Mountains,) Duan along with a dozen veteran vanguards were the first to scale over the city wall. 

Upon scaling the walls of the city, Duan then raced to the residence of the governor of Jinzhou's compound, there, he drew his sword and captured Wei Xianggui- the governor. The shouts and commotions soon paralyzed the Qi army to collapse and Wei along with 8,000 defenders were all captured. For his fearless bravery Duan was awarded the title of the Marquis of Xiangguo County, and for his merits, with a fief of 800 households. In 577, the whole of Northern Qi was annexed by the Northern Zhou, unifying all of northern China under 1 dynasty again.

Unfortunately despite his own personal competence, Northern Zhou's leadership eventually unraveled, in the chaos a skilled ethnic Han high minister of the court- Yang Jian 杨坚- whose daughter was the wife of the late Northern Zhou emperor became the Regent of Northern Zhou, and after many princes of Northern Zhou moved against him in rebellion he had them crushed and executed. Feeling his power secured, Yang Jian then did away with his pretense and declared himself the Emperor of a new dynasty- the Sui in 581. Yang Jian would posthumously be known as Emperor Wen (of Sui) and remembered one of the best emperors in Chinese history.

FURTHER ELEVATION

After the transition, Duan was still greatly valued by the Sui, and he was appointed as an aide to the prime minister. He was further promoted to the position of the governor of Lanzhou in the west then further enfeoffed as the Duke of Longgang County. When the Gokturks invaded across the border, he defeated them as the commander- in- chief and pursued them out of the Juyan Pass before returning in victory.

SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS- REUNIFICATION

With the north stabilized, Emperor Wen decisively turned its attention to the south. In 589- Sui launched a massive major offensive against the Chen dynasty to the south. The campaign was extremely ambitious and instead of relying on 1 or 2 major prongs instead Sui deployed many separate armies along the entire Yangtze River frontier but give them mission- based objectives so that they would maintain relentless momentum. 

In all, the Sui assembled around 518,000 men, along the Yangtze River by late 588. The army was divided into eight routes under commanders including Yang Guang (the Prince of Jin) and Gao Jiong- as well as 2 theaters, with the western prong fielded with massive "Five Fang" tower ships designed to ran the Yangzee gauntlet and sweep aside all riverine navies along the way. 

For this grand campaign, Duan was placed as the Grand Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the Sui Prince of Qin's army. For each of the major armies in the east, the same mission- based objectives were instructed to commanders on each sides as well so that the Chen (which was then totally unprepared for the sudden offensive) would be suddenly overwhelmed and unable to know where to reinforce in force, while several invader's prong all advance like a rake down- making it impossible for serious rear guards to build up in their advancing wake. 

Above: A Sui Dynasty cataphract's figurine. Mid: An armored Sui cataphract- mural from Duan Wenzhen's tomb. Below: Another Sui dynasty cataphract's figurine contemporary to this period- with a cheek-pieced helmet (plus lamellar aventail) that mostly resembles the murals and construction from Duan Wenzhen's tomb. 

Action Figure: JiaoZong Model Tang Dynasty Horse's Armor 1/6 Accessories Black WF2024

(Above) cataphract horseman figurines recovered from Tang Prince Yide of Tang's mausoleum. 

The Sui- like many northern Chinese dynasties before them (especially those led by the Xianbei)- greatly favored massed heavy cavalry. However, due to exposure with very formidable light cavalry archer dominated states such as the Gokturks, northern Chinese generals began to change some of their pool of cavalry to fight like light cavalry. In time, the Sui had elite cavalry divisions modeled after such victorious models: called Yingyang- or "Soaring Hawk" Regiments, whereby the Soaring Hawk commanders attained prominent prestige and privileges compared to the rest of the Sui Fubings (drafted units.) With the "Soaring Hawks" the Sui were able to contest the Gokturks on an even field.

Chanfron and barding (horse armor) of a 4th-7th century Chinese cataphract, 

note the ostentatious plume Jisheng 寄生, lit. "parasite" on the horse's hip. 

Depiction of a warrior (marked by his large lacquered shield) fighting against rows of northern Chinese cataphracts, where the rider and the horse were completely encased in lamellar armor. The north- composed of the vast steppe as well as the flat central plains proved ideal for raising formidable cavalry, while the south- largely composed of extremely mountainous river lands, proved nearly impossible to thwart by such northern armies. Thus an impasse remained between the "barbarian" led north and Han led south and the respective Northern and Southern dynasties.

The Sui blitzkrieg worked out miraculously. The awed and paralyzed Chen was immediately overwhelmed by the almost modern level of enemy coordination- to such a degree that the deeply corrupt court didn't even inform the Chen ruler of the invasion. All thing considered, it was a decisively well executed campaign. The Chen was completely overwhelmed in the east, and in the west its navy was repeatedly destroyed by the Sui naval vanguard down the Yangtze and took flight. Soon the Chen capital of Nanjing was taken, and the whole Chen imperial court was captured. The whole campaign had only lasted little more than 3 months, with the naval Western theater around only 2 months. As far as examples of a northern Chinese polity attempting to breaching into and annex a southern one- it was a marvelous lightning campaign that achieved much and without heavy casualties despite having pitted some 500,000 soldiers against the other's 200,000. Finally, after 300 years, China was fully reunited again. 

GRANDER HEIGHTS- FURTHER OPERATIONS

Above: Heavily armored guards from murals in Duan Wenzhen's tomb. Several of the helmets bears special animistic motifs 

Emperor Wen- though an authoritarian at heart, treated both the Chen Emperor and much of his court with kindness. The appearance and mannerisms of the southern nobility and its ways were so strange to the northern court that it immediately sparked a cultural fascination of everything southern in the north. After nearly 300 years of division (400 years considering the eruption of the Han into 3 kingdoms period,) finally there was only one China headed by one throne.

Though a severe man and an authoritarian at heart- for either personal but more likely political reasons Emperor Wen treated the deposed Chen emperor and his court kindly- and also instructed his generals and ministers to do so. Evidently setting a personal precedence that now is the time for reconciliation between two Chinese peoples. Both northerners and southerners were one. 

Perhaps it is telling that although the customs, even spoken language of both the emperor of the north and the former emperor of the South were utterly unintelligible, they were still able to fluently "converse" with each other in their writings via Chinese characters. 

Above: Sculpted relief of a warrior with tiger crown cap from Maijishan Scenic Area. Middle: Chinese warrior's figurine with distinctive tiger crown. Below: Cham warriors depicted in reliefs from Bayon Temple- Ankor 

After the conquest of the south- Duan was appointed the head military commander of Yangzhou in the south. Shortly after he was rotated to Bingzhou as its commander- in- chief, but resigned due to his mother's death. Subsequently he served as commander- in- chief of several other provinces, and was accorded high imperial military honors. By this time a major civil war had split up the Gokturks from within and the is now a Western Gokturk Khaganate and also an Eastern Gokturk Khaganate.  In 599, he was sent against the Gokturk Tardu Khagan of the Western Khaganate- although he suffered an initial defeat, he was able to ultimately win and beat back Tardu from the field. 

Despite his victories, a Sui prince- Yang Xiu slandered his performances and he was dismissed from his post. However, after Yang Xiu was exposed for his crimes and corruption, Duan Wenzhen submitted a memorial to plead his innocence to Emperor Wen, and Emperor Wen reappointed him as a commander-in-chief of several various provinces.

Unfortunately for Duan- in 604 AD, Emperor Wen suddenly fell ill in his summer palace and died later in autumn of that year. Due to the very private nature of his sudden passing some historians had suggested that he may have been assassinated by his son, the ambitious Yang Guang, or Emperor Yang of Sui.

IRREVERSIBLE FORTUNE

Unlike his sagacious, workaholic, and above all- able father, Emperor Yang's reign proved disastrous within and without. In recognition of Duan Wenzhen's skill and renown, he was appointed the Minister of War, during this time he led an expedition against the Xianbei- led kingdom of Tuyuhun between the Chinese- Tibetan border along the Hexi Corridor at the food of the Qilian Mounbtain- with his soldiers so numerous their camps stretching for some 80 Li. He was promoted to Right Grand Master of the Palace for his merits. In 612 Duan was appointed Left General of the Imperial Guard and participated in Emperor Yang's invasion against Goguryeo in Liaodong (today's Liaoning Province.) 

Above: Reconstructed Goguryeo armor by moomoo. Although previously, many who examined the Goguryeo murals assumed that the Goguryeo cataphract's helmets were designed with distinctive raised wing like stylized cheek guards, -including this blog as well. modern scholars from Korea and China have gradually advocated the interpretation that the winged guards may in fact simply be the appearance of cheek guards swept up rather than truly decorative wings. It is the position of this blog that they were more likely raised cheek guards as well.

The campaign was extremely ambitious, with later Tang accounts stating that Sui mobilized some 1 millions soldiers, though modern historians believed the figure was more likely over 670,000. Despite these odds, the Sui ambition was severely blunted. It was recorded that on April 26th of 612, Duan Wenzhen died in the army. He was posthumously awarded the title of Grand Master of the Palace, Right Vice Minister of the Ministry of Personnel, and Marquis of Beiping. Later that year, he was buried on December 6th of 612 in his current tomb. The Goguryeo campaign proved extremely disastrous for Emperor Yang, and checked his foreign ambitions.

Epitaph from the Duan family's mausoleum, bearing both dates as well as records that extolled the achievements and lineage of the Duan clan from 5 generations.

Domestically, Emperor Yang also ambitiously attempted to expand infrastructure by building the Grand Canal, however he vastly mismanaged the governance of various provinces, causing famine across the realm. During the chaos- it was reported that greedy ministers did not report the failures to Yang and- unaware of the famines and vast discontent that swept across his empire, Yang devoted his times on constructing a series of lavish palaces instead. It was in this conflagration where multiple provinces had killed their Sui officials and rebelled that one of the Sui governors- Li Yuan, and his Li clan, declared their imperial ambition and marched on the Sui capital of Chang'an, inaugurating the Tang dynasty. Emperor Yang was soon murdered by his mutinous imperial guards and the various warlords that made their bid for regional- or imperial power were swiftly crushed by the Li clan: setting the state for a new golden age of China.

TANG GUARDSMAN'S HEAVY ARMOR

Armored officer of the Guard of Honour. Tomb of Tang dynasty Princess Changle (长乐公主墓), Zhao Mausoleum. They are depicted armed with an unstrung longbow (secured jutting out from their belt,) his arrows are secured in a tubular arrow case called húlù 胡禄. For melee he carries a long single edged slashing sword (tangdao) and bannered lance. Unarmored version of imperial guards can be seen here.

In all, men like Duan were not so unique as to the stripe of military men from the chaotic 6th and 7th century China. After the fall of Sui many prominent men also rose up and made their names in the ensuing chaos, becoming some of the finest generals and founding fathers of the Tang dynasty- as key generals of the Taizong Emperor of Tang. Several of their careers have already been extensively covered here already including.

Tang General Yuchi Gong (Yuchi Jinde)

Tang General Qin Shubao (Qin Qiong)

Tang General Cheng Yaojin

Music: Traveller (Zide Guqin Studio)

It is with some melancholy that Duan Wenzhen's legacy was largely pegged to 2 less known Chinese dynasties, despite the fact that he played such a vital parts in both and were seen by a large procession of ruling elites as a pivotal instrument. Perhaps it was fortunate that he was not able to see the entire enterprise of an arduously united China entirely unravel again in his life time, but who knows, given the Tang's leaning toward valuing of talents and great clemency to talented Sui officials he would have did fine even should he find himself in the Tang.

His 2nd son Duan Shiya eventually became a high ranking official in the Tang dynasty. Another son became the Grand Master of the Palace, Imperial Censor, and Grand Master of the Palace during the Tang as well. Another son Duan Jian was the Prefect of Xuanzhou during Tang. His 7th son served as a Gentleman of the Tang Imperial Secretariat. The epitaph on the Duan family tomb- which was composed in the Tang dynasty records their family's ensuing fortune during the Tang.

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