Battle of Mobei: Han Dynasty's Northern Judgement- 漠北之战: 汉北大举进攻
This article is an excerpt of a larger more detailed article on Huo Qubing's military career which examines his age and military career. Full article could be found here.

Battered: Early Han (Western Han) in yellow, the Qin- Han Great Wall in red, traditional invasion corridor used by Xiongnu forces to penetrate Han territory in green: By this time after generation of wrangling the interior of the Han had became for the most part a de facto unitary empire with imperial authority firmly consolidated under its autocrat.
Model: JZMW-O14 Twin Pillars of Han Dynasty: Grand General Wei Qing 衛青
Wei Qing swiftly rose to become a legendary commander under the emperor's patronage. Despite being previously untried and from obscure origins, because of the emperor's personal esteem and his own initiative, Wei proved himself rapidly in battle. As an aggressive cavalry commander he was able to achieve a string of victories against the Xiongnu in the 120s BC and drive the confederacy from the Ordos steppes, depriving them of key pastures close to the great wall theater.
KLG 空灵阁 1/6 Great Han General Series: Huo Qubing -霍去病
Wei Qing's nephew Huo Qubing: An unmatched cavalry commander specializing in deep operations and was critical in crushing the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor. Huo Qubing was one of the most unique generals in Chinese history, rising from obscure origins as an illegitimate son of a disgraced mother, he would rise to become the early Han's most audacious general. Arrogant, bellicose, and hard-hearted, he nonetheless prove vital for the dynasty that placed its trust in his youthful promise. He would help secure 2 fronts for the Han by the age of 21, irrevocably changing the balance between empires.
The Han committed a massive maul for this decisive strike. According to "Record of the Grand Historian"- Volume 110, Account of the Xiongnu, No. 50, "Book of Han," and the later "Zizhitongjian" the Han stockpiled over 100,000 cavalrymen and 140,000 additional horses. Supplemented with additional hundreds of thousands of crossbowmen and halberdiers as rearguards: including a large but unspecified number of large "chariots" that are in reality more akin to war wagons.
FURTHEST REACHES CAMPAIGN
In 119 BC, the Han prepared a massive coordinated campaign against the Xiongnu core territories beyond the Gobi Desert. This expedition represented the most ambitious Han offensive to that date, with over 100,000 cavalry stockpiled, 140,000 additional horses and hundreds of thousands of infantry and supply wagons. Originally Wu mulled over whether to let Huo lead the grand offensive under his sole command, however when a surrendered Xiongnu captive informed Wu that the Chanyu had also portioned out a sizeable portion of his army under the command of the Tuqi King of the Left in the east, Wu resorted to splitting the northern offensive in 2 large prongs, one would be led by Huo Qubing, the other by his uncle Wei Qing as supreme commanders- with a large assembly of subcommanders under each.
Organization of the Xiongnu regional commands. The defensive arrangement could be thought of akin to a boxer with 2 arms extended out for battle. The Chanyu often would command the central army, with the administrative center of the confederacy usually close to the central reaches of the realm. On the flanks- command would often fall into a Tuqi King of the Left or Right/ alternatively Worthy King of the Left respectively in the east and west. Knowing that there are 2 large hosts lying in wait- Wu divided the Han response.
Huo Qubing was expected to find the Chanyu and deliver the killing blow- for this purpose his army was furnished with the best imperial cavalry. Comparatively Huo's prong per usual carried less baggage and provisions and greatly relied on speed while Wei Qing's army was more intended as a rearguard with the long baggage train. Wei Qing's army was sub- commanded by: Li Guang Gongsun He, Zhao Shiqi, Cao Xiang. Huo Qubing's was sub-commanded by: Xingshan, Fulu Zhiyi , Jiqian, Zhao Po Nu , Zhao Anji, Li Gan, Xu Ziwei
WEI QING'S MARCH
The initial strategic plan called for Huo Qubing to attack from Dingxiang to engage the Chanyu's main force, while Wei Qing would support from the Dai Commandery to engage the Tuqi King of the Left. The 2 large imperial columns marched out under nephew and uncle. However discontent among some of Wei Qing's officers made his command trying. Li Guang, the old "Flying General" who was once promised a Marquis by Emperor Wu's grandfather- who had by now seen younger rule breakers like Huo Qubing race far ahead to his desired position in a fraction of his time, was desperate to secure his own victory in battle Li Guang insisted that he wanted a vanguard position as promised by Emperor Wu.
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Unfortunately in reality the emperor had secretly told Wei to staunchly refuse that proposal because Li Guang's long streak of bad luck (previously when Huo Qubing conquered the west Li Guang had also ventured out in another front and by sheer luck ran directly into the Chanyu's crack forces had his troops mauled and made back only after escaping from his captors). Wei Qing thus assigned Li Guang to combine forces with another commander Zhao Shiqi on a barren eastern flanking route, an arrangement that Li heavily protested against and left in anger.
Old School and sadly incompatible: "The Flying General" Li Guang- an old veteran general among the senior ranks of Han generals. Old in age with several decades of proven service to Emperor Wu's father and grandfather. Once he was a highly respected general of chariotry and was beloved by his own soldiers and the Xiongnu greatly respected his strength and gave him his flattering sobriquet of "Flying General." He nonetheless found himself ill- at odds with the new crop of Han generals and new ways of warfare.
Despite his troubles adapting to the new way of warfare, Li Guang was also saddled with unfulfilled ambition, Emperor Wu's grandfather Emperor Wen once promised him a noble elevation to Marquis if he achieved a tremendous campaign in battle, however it never came to fruition. The combination of inability to fully adapt to the new paradigm, over ambition, and brutal sheer bad luck made him a tragic foil to the rising new crop of aggressive Han generals.
This eventually diluted the strength of Wei Qing's own prong- as Li Guang proved to be unreliable. Li Guang departed in anger, however, bad luck would continue to indeed plague him. Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi got lost in the wilderness and completely miss out all of the battles in this campaign, thus rendering his sizeable division of troops useless to the now more vulnerable Wei Qing.
Music: Blood for the Sky God
HUO QUBING'S RIDE
Huo Qubing led Lieutenant Li Gan and others out of the border, carried a small amount of baggage and food, drove and captured many Xiongnu along the way. Marching over 2,000 li, he crossed the desert, crossed the river to capture the Xiongnu ministers from their camps. Soon he encountered upon a large Xiongnu host~ but instead of the Chanyu's best, instead he found the Tuqi King's horde. The resulting battle was devastating for the Xiongnu.
Huo Qubing's eastern prong consisted of the most elite cavalry divisions from the empire and though the battle was not covered in detail it was a decisive victory with the more elite Han prong overawing the relatively weaker Xiongnu host he faced. Again Huo Qubing outdid his previous numbers, annihilating some 70,000 Xiongnu forces and suffering 10% to his prong's strength and 20~30% losses to his cavalry. On his way he was also joined by Lu Bode- the governor of the Beiping Commandery at the time- his army also slew some 2,800 foes on his own account. Lu Bode would later play a pivotal role in the Han conquest of Nanyue and taking of Hainan island.
Huo's forces rapidly encircled and killed 70,443 enemy troops and eliminated the Tuqi King / Worthy Prince of the Left. The battle was swift and decisive, as the Worthy Prince's forces were no match for Huo's elite cavalry. Huo also captured 3 subordinate kings, and as well as 83 VIP enemy high ranking captains, ministers, and nobles. While at the same time Huo's own side~ according to the "Record of the Grand Historian" and "Book of Han" suffered 10% losses overall and 20~30% casualty rate to his cavalry: amounting to some 10,000- 15,000 cavalry lost but were quickly resupplied from local tribesmen.
THE WORLD'S EDGE
In order to secure his wake, he allowed local tribes such as the Donghu People- who had been subjugated under the Xiongnu decades prior~ to retake back their land to establish their own confederacy and declared independence from their Xiongnu overlords. Following this victory, Huo Qubing pushed even deeper into Xiongnu territory, advancing to the Khentii Mountains—considered sacred by the Xiongnu. Most remarkably, Huo Qubing continued his pursuit campaign as far as Lake Baikal (瀚海). On his returning journey, Huo Qubing conducted rites and rituals on the Khentii Mountains which honored Han ancestors.
Khentii was located at the sacred heart of the Confederacy, and Baikal represented some of its furthest reaches. Huo had now demonstrated that even their most distant territories were now vulnerable to Han military operations.
He then joined forces with a column commanded by Han governor Lu Bode, governor of the Han Right Beiping Commandery in what is today's modern Inner Mongolia, who rode back with his own 2,800 enemy kills. The combined forces then returned in triumph. However despite his decisive victory, the most important battle in the theater did not fell upon him. It turned out that the Xiongnu captive who informed Emperor Wu of the Xiongnu deployments had lied. Wei Qing was marching right into the maw of the Chanyu's ambush.
Music: Scourge of God
MOBEI- WEI QING'S ROUTE
After a journey of over 800 km (500 mi), Wei Qing's column ran directly into the Chanyu's main forces of 80,000 cavalry lying in ambush. This was completely unexpected, as the original strategy was to let Huo Qubing's elite troops deal with the Chanyu's elite cavalry.
Although setting off with less expectations from Emperor Wu, the western theater proved more dramatic.
Wei Qing's Han forces were already tired and outnumbered after its own long march, especially since Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi's eastern division had completely not yet arrived back to rejoin their number. Meanwhile the Chanyu's host had been waiting for this precise moment/ Without hesitation, the Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard of cavalry.
Han dynasty tomb relief depicting battle of Han soldiers vs Xiongnu warriors: the Han are distinguished by their armors and shields while the Xiongnu denoted by their conical felt hats.
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Wei Qing immediately recognized the odds against him and the danger of an exposed formation in open plains and quickly took defensive countermeasures. He ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armored war wagons known as wuguang wagons 武刚车 (lit. "Unyielding Fighting Wagon") into a large ring formations, that created a wagon fort whereby his infantry and cavalry hid behind.
Wuguang Wagon 武刚车 from later dynasties: in this later version they are presented as a hybrid of a wheelbarrow and mobile pavise screen. As such, whole trains of supply wagons can~ if needed, quickly rearrange into a defensive wagon fort. Further it is likely the Han variants were larger in size.
Wei Qing's quick thinking saved the entire army from immediate destruction, and was able to allow the tide of the Xiongu forces to crash against his lines and not have the Han formations break. With the initial ambitious charge neutralized, for the rest of the day the Han and Xiongnu forces the battle descended into an endless probing along the Han circle. The battle devolved into a stalemate with neither side making significant gains or losses. However by dusk, everything changed.
Music: Soaring Dragons
When dusk descended, a heavy sandstorm obscured the whole battlefield. Wei Qing decided to the take tactical advantage of the confusion created by the storm and then sent out his own crack cavalry from 2 prongs to crash against the Xiongnu's position. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and managed to encircled the Chanyu's army from both flanks. Unable to see the numbers of the coming enemy the Xiongnu position were overwhelmed, and when both side of their flanks reported Han encirclement panic set in and the Xiongnu broke from the field.
With his forces annihilated, the Chanyu barely escaped capture with the escort of only a few hundred men. The Han forces killed over 19,000 enemies at Mobei and pursued the enemy for the remainder another 160 km (100 mi) to the Khangai Mountains in the west where they besieged then captured the Fortress built by the defector Zhao Xin in the Orkhon Valley. After a day spent regrouping and receiving fresh supplies, the Wei Qing's forces burned the stronghold to the ground, before returning in triumph.
For a brief spell, there was simply silence in the northern frontier. The Chanyu's position had been weakened so such an extent that he was not found by any of his larger hosts until another Chanyu had been appointed in his stead. With this swiftly rectified with, the Xiongnu retreated further deeper into Central Asia. For the Han, on Wei Qing' returning trek, they were met with Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi's lost forces, which had not done any battle in the campaign. The displeased Emperor Wu summoned both for extensive investigation (and almost guaranteed punishment or stripping of rank and honors upon return) in order to preserve a semblance of honor, Li Guang committed suicide.
VICTORY- AND ITS COST
Although the Chanyu avoided capture, The northern campaign proved to be decisive- though with several less than immediate effects. Both Han columns distinguished themselves well in victory, with Huo's 70,000 damage inflicted and Wei Qing's 19,000 + Lu Bode's 2,800 the Xiongu lost around 80,000~ 90,000 casualties. This campaign effectively broke Xiongnu power for a generation.
Though the Han won, the victory came at that of a figurative limb. Wei's army lost a comparable number of casualties to that of the Chanyu's (~19,000). Han army lost almost 80% of their horses on these expeditions, in total some 100,000 extremely expensive warhorses bred for 4 generations of emperors were lost. Economic pressure on the central Han government led to new taxes being introduced, increasing the burden on average peasants. After Mobei the Han returned to lick up their figurative wounds. Regardless: Wu as a statesman knew all along the greatest asset of his empire's strength, Han's sheer populace and economic ability to afford sheer numerical losses that would cripple all of its surrounding enemies. His empire could afford to grind his enemies to death while keep taking heavy blows.
The Xiongnu, however, suffered an even more lethal blow, as their military losses would reflect directly on their economy. Apart from loss of manpower due to wartime casualties and diseases, the nomadic Xiongnu lost innumerable livestock, the economic foundation of their society and state. After Mobei the Xiongnu entered into a protracted decline unable to match their former days. What's more, they would eventually fell to division. By the time of the 1st century AD the Confederacy would be divided into 2 branches, with the Southern Xiongnu pledging allegiance to the Han while the north was annihilated. The balance, although not immediately apparent, has been truly changed.
For this victory Huo's personal holdings was then increased further by 5,400 households- bringing his total territorial reward to 10,100 households—a landholding that placed him among the highest nobility of the empire.
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Comments
I didn't realize Huo Qubing reached so far north to Lake Baikal? I thought it was General Lan Yu of the Ming Dynasty chasing Yuan Remnant forces who was the first Chinese general to reach that far north.
I'm curious about one thing though. The T'ang Dynasty was famous for employing Turks to man their cavalry, and the Ming Dynasty employed Mongol cavalry, surrended Yuan defectors and vassals. If for no reason that Turks and Mongols are naturally good cavalry compared to the Han Chinese who like the Romans and Greeks were more infantry based. What made up the Han cavalry armies of Han Wudi? Were they predominantly Han Chinese trained in cavalry warefare? or like the T'ang and Ming, employ large numbers of Hun cavalry?
Within the empire's walls though that formed another reality entirely. When the Han disintegrated it became a potential problem, but the talented northern generals like Cao Cao and Gongsun Zan were able to make use of either subdued tribes men as auxillaries, or Gongsun Zan develop advanced nimble cavalry of his own. However by the Jin dynasty and especially the chaos unleashed by the war of the 8 princes the Hu seized power and began to establish their own dynasties. However by then these Hu- at least the ones within the empire, like most Xianbei who were outside of it, were very deeply assimilated. Unlike in Europe where it's some kind of barbarian flooding through ala Adrianople. It was more akin to the various Germanic soldiers inside the Roman military seizing power from within. Example, Xiongnu commanders by then were well versed with Han history and even made the claim the were progeny of the descendants of the Xia Kings~ since according to (flimsy) tradition Xia was purportedly banished north and likely intermingled with the dwellers of the steppes. Regardless this became a useful claim to began several their own "Xia" kingdoms.
Incidentally this trend didn't stop with them either, northern bend of the yellow river and Ordos Plateau later also gave the name of the Tangut Western Xia as well, since the dynasty was also declared in that initial area.
Thanks