The Young Huo Qubing- Emperor Wu's Miracle: 猛郎霍去病—汉武帝的奇迹

 

KLG 空灵阁 1/6 Great Han General Series: Huo Qubing -霍去病

Music: Sound of Heart Strings

"Six long-distance assaults, like lightning and thunder.

Watering horse at Lake Baikal, conducting rituals at Khentii Mountains.

Conquering west of great river, establishing commanderies along Qilian Mountains."

-Book of Han, on Huo Qubing

He was Emperor Wu's miracle. From his campaigns, the Han went from danger to became the foremost empire in East Asia. In just six short years spanning a life little more than 2 decades, he became one of the most celebrated generals in millennias of Chinese history.

An unmatched cavalry commander specializing in deep operations : Huo Qubing was one of the most unique generals in Chinese history, rising from obscure origins as an illegitimate son of a disgraced mother, he would rise to become the early Han's most audacious general. Arrogant, bellicose, and hard-hearted, he nonetheless prove vital for the dynasty that placed its trust in his youthful promise. After all, as the saying goes, "the flame that burns twice as bright, burns half as long." Here is the biography of the young general that achieved a string of miracles in battle and won 2 fronts for the Han by the age of 21. 

THE HAN XIONGNU TINDERBOX

Ever since the defeat suffered by Emperor Gaozu of Han (Liu Bang) against the Xiongnus at the dynasty's founding, the Han had opted for appeasement and defense against their northern neighbors. The Han re-entrenched the Qin Great Walls and opted for payment of tributes to the Xiongnu- also paired with heqin marriages of Han "princesses" (most likely palace women) in appeasement. 

Wide Open: Northern China's geography for many millenniums had been a geopolitical nightmare. We will instantly notice the broad (and indefensible) northern expanses of flat steppe lands (in white.) During the Qin and Han dynasties great lengths of the Great Wall were built along the spine of the empire. For a century the standing policy of Han China had been defense and paying of tributes to the Xiongu Confederacy beyond the walls.

With these policy set in place the Han then turned to internal affairs and wealth creation, turning the once war torn realm which rose from Qin's ashes into a prosperous- and more unitary empire. However despite these policies, the Xiongnu did not relent their raids and often aggressively raided deep into Han territories. Despite such provocations, the Han bid their time and focused on internal consolidation within the walls. 

Early Han's Division: Vassal Kingdoms: The western imperial core (red) directly administered by the primary imperial Liu clan in contrast against the eastern patchwork of semi- autonomous vassal "kingdoms" that were ruled by other hereditary branches of the Liu family (orange, green, yellow.) Before the ascension of Emperor Wu his predecessors had began to systematically weaken and incorporate these kingdoms directly into the imperial fold, amalgamating such imperial uncles and cousins back into the imperial fold. When they revolted in war in the brief Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms- Wu's predecessors drastically accelerated the assimilation process. By the time of Emperor Wu's majority- his ancestors would have left him a prosperous empire, internally without rivals, and stockpiled with several generations of the best war horses they can breed (this was prior to the discovery of Ferghana "Heavenly" horses.)

By the 130 BC, the Han dynasty was ready to change its century- long policy of appeasement to the Xiongnu host north of the Great Wall. With the ascension of the ambitious new Emperor Wu, Han began to aggressively reform within and look at its neighbors with expansion in mind. Unlike his predecessors, Wu would no longer tolerate the perennial threat from the north and was keen to take the fight directly to the Xiongnu~ on the steppe itself if it needed be.

Xiongnu: in old Chinese is actually pronounced "Hunnu" and the prevailing consensus among many historians is that the Xiongnu were the ancestors of the Huns.

Music: Bitter Steppes of the West

Huo Qubing's entry into military service occurred during a critical juncture in Han-Xiongnu relations. In 133 BC, wanting to decapitate the Xiongnu in one fell swoop, Emperor Wu rather impetuously attempted to ambush and capture the Xiongnu Chanyu (Chanyu is the Xongnu word for Khan or supreme ruler) during a parlay which failed disastrously, when the Chanyu was alerted of the Han ambush the Xiongnu quickly pulled out in haste and the prepared Han chariotry were unable to pursue after them. Devastating Xiongnu raids soon returned in full. 

Battered: Early Han (Western Han) in yellow, the Qin- Han Great Wall in red, traditional invasion corridor used by Xiongnu forces to penetrate Han territory in green: By this time after generation of wrangling the interior of the Han had became for the most part a de facto unitary empire with imperial authority firmly consolidated under its autocrat. 

Wu drastically began to reform the obsolete Han war machine. Chariotry and chariots were nearly all phased out, except for heavy war wagons, and Wu began to look for his own capable cavalry commanders who are able to contend with some of the best cavalry of Eurasia.

HOLDING THE LINE

A digital reconstruction of a powerful Han dynasty fort/ garrison. Far from the idea that the Great Wall was merely a static series of defense, in fact it proved vital as an anchor for projection and launching of invasions beyond the walls. This particular example does not have crenulated walls (chest high protections) and instead had man height walls with openings for crossbowmen to fire out. Though many other Han dynasty fortifications did have crenulated walls. Key aspect of the fort included a large courtyard where a stationing army could set up camp within and a castle like inner keep that is protected by an even higher set of walls. The gigantic size of the courtyard should be noted when compared to the barracks and stables which appears diminutive within. All of the approaches to the walls are filled with tall spikes to deter enemy approaching in large numbers. 

Emperor Wu had committed to an aggressive northern strategy that departed sharply from the heqin (peace through kinship) policies of his predecessors. By 129 BC, large-scale Han offensive operations had resumed. 

(Below) Young Han dynasty Gentleman in formal robes. Born into modest circumstances then elevated to imperial aristocracy. Despite his powerful relatives, Huo grew up in the shadow of the ongoing conflict with the Xiongnu, which had dominated Han foreign policy since the dynasty's founding.

Huo Qubing's rise cannot be separated from his family connections. His mother was a lowly maid who had an affair with a low ranking official. However the official abandoned her and married another woman instead, thus young Huo Qubing was born out of wedlock. Despite these difficulties, his mother decided to raise him with the help of siblings. The name Huo Qubing was extremely unusual in Chinese- literally translated as Huo 霍 (his biological father's clan name) + 去病 "ward off sickness,"  an apotropaic name invoked to ward off sickness for the young boy. Fortune would smile on the boy when his younger aunt caught the attention of the then young Emperor Wu who became enamored with her beauty and wisdom made her his new empress. As such her Wei clan (Huo's maternal clan) was elevated to a position of high prestige.

At the time Wu intensely distrusted the more laisse affair and traditionalist old guards in the court- many of them loyal to his hyper meddling grandmother who held the true reins of the government. For this reason Wu decided to rely on complete outsiders, an assemblage of skilled but unproven scholars from the capital, and fresh inner palace allies from the Wei clan. 

After his aunt bore the emperor his new crown prince, the Wei family became highly influential in Wu's inner cabinet, becoming the ultimate insiders. Because of such a serendipitous turn of fortune, despite his modest origins, the young Huo was instantly elevated to the position of lofty imperial aristocracy, supplemented with luxury, servants to attend his every needs, and a life of leisure. 

UNCLE'S SHADOW- THE STAR OF WEI QING

Model: JZMW-O14 Twin Pillars of Han Dynasty: Grand General Wei Qing 衛青

Wei Qing swiftly rose to become a legendary commander under the emperor's patronage. Despite being previously untried and from obscure origins, because of the emperor's personal esteem and his own initiative, Wei proved himself rapidly in battle. As an aggressive cavalry commander he was able to achieve a string of victories against the Xiongnu in the 120s BC and drive the confederacy from the Ordos steppes, depriving them of key pastures close to the great wall theater.

From this new inner cabinet, Wu began to rely on these fresh talents for his military ambitions. The newly elevated empress's half- brother Wei Qing- who- like Huo Qubing was also an illegitimate son, became a trusted commander. Despite his unproven records in battle, the Emperor invested in him great powers to skip to the foremost ranks of Han military hierarchy to lead campaigns against the Xiongnu. 

Huo's uncle Wei Qing was already an accomplished general under Emperor Wu- exemplary of a new crop of generals directly from the inner circles favored by the emperor. This connection placed young Huo within the orbit of the emperor himself, as Wei Qing's half- sister Wei Zifu had become Emperor Wu's trusted advisor. 

Art by: Li Wenda

And despite all odds against conventional wisdom, Wei Qing proved to be a great success in Han's campaigns, while many of the older generals from the more traditional rungs of the Han war machine stumbled, for a decade, Wei Qing's high initiative achieved several stunning victories against the Xiongnu in battle~ taking both the Ordos steppes from the Xiongnu, and through aggressive cavalry attacks, decisively crushed the Xiongnu Tuqi King- (or Right Worthy Prince) in battle, taking tens of thousands of enemy captives. 

At 17, Huo Qubing voluntarily chose a military life. The teenage Huo initially served in the personal retinue of his uncle Wei Qing, though not as a privileged family member but rather in the humble position of attendant. This role provided extraordinary firsthand exposure to frontier military operations. Wei Qing, recognizing his nephew's sharp tactical mind, gradually allowed him greater responsibilities. 

Music: In the Temple

A FATEFUL CHOICE

As a commander young Huo Qubing was known for his impetuosity, and was not so beloved by the troop rather than feared (and later respected.) He would drive them extremely hard and demanded much from them in action. Furthermore he earned a reputation as a rather callous war leader because he did not gave much slack to his soldier's conditions.

It should be noted that before being let into the military life: Huo Qubing did not have to choose this life at all- having been elevated to be a privileged member of the empress's house, Huo could have chosen a simple life of leisure and idle pleasure, with his every need attended by servants and entirely avoided the hustle and bustle of grueling campaigns and uncertain clashes on the dangerous frontiers. But despite these options available to him and despite his new found nobility- he chose to train or a life of a military officer in the stripe of his uncle. 

Old School and sadly incompatible: "The Flying General" Li Guang- an old veteran general among the senior ranks of Han generals. Old in age with several decades of proven service to Emperor Wu's father and grandfather. Once he was a highly respected general of chariotry and was beloved by his own soldiers and the Xiongnu greatly respected his strength and gave him his flattering sobriquet of "Flying General." He nonetheless found himself ill- at odds with the new crop of Han generals and new ways of warfare.

Despite his troubles adapting to the new way of warfare, Li Guang was also saddled with unfulfilled ambition, Emperor Wu's grandfather Emperor Wen once promised him a noble elevation to Marquis if he achieved a tremendous campaign in battle, however it never came to fruition. The combination of inability to fully adapt to the new paradigm, over ambition, and brutal sheer bad luck made him a tragic foil to the rising new crop of aggressive Han generals.

It should also be understood that although Emperor Wu favored his wife greatly at this stage of his life- as an almost legalistic autocrat, failures or ruins for officers on the campaign often resulted in severe punishments, as such it is not a position of potential renown, any failures would result in potential stripping of nobility, grievous disciplinary measures, even executions. 

TRIAL BY FIRE

Unlike many of his contemporary officers who came from established military families with generations of training in warfare, Wei lacked their lifetime of military education. Instead, he developed his understanding of combat through direct observation and natural aptitude. Demonstrating a brash and unorthodox streak, Huo personally did not favor reading military classics and preferred on- hand experience and fluid adaptation to circumstances.

In 123 BC, Emperor Wu approved Wei Qing's recommendation that Huo, then only 17, be granted command of a cavalry detachment for the upcoming northern campaign. It was a highly unorthodox promotion, however it was characteristic of the martial emperor. Just like with the elevation of Wei Qing: Emperor Wu had by this point developed a pattern of promoting based on demonstrated ability rather than traditional qualifications. 

In 123 BC, Emperor Wu sent Wei Qing from Dingxiang 定襄 to engage the invading Xiongnu, an entrenched frontier region where the Great Wall's eastern sections met the steppe. In previous centuries the frontier served as a barrier for great states like the Zhao in the Warring States era, now reinforced by Qin's Great Walls and now Han's own. Huo Qubing would serve as Captain of Piaoyao 票姚校尉 (lit: "vigorous agile"- similar to Italian usage of celere) under his uncle and see real battle for the first time. 

Western Han dynasty cavalryman- he is equipped with a long trident shaped spear called sha (铩) which features large winged lugs on its two sides along with a recurved bow and quiverful of arrows. Han decisively abandoned nearly all of its old chariotry and instead shifted to fighting with true cavalry much like their nimble Xiongnu counterparts (although even with their relatively modest armor- compared to the nearly completely unarmored Xiongnu proved more than adequate for protection in the often long distance campaigns. Insight: this was still before the Han acquired the famed "Heavenly Horses" from Ferghana Valley as such the war horses Huo Qubing used in his career were not the best in the theater. In matters of dealing with the expert Xiongnu horse archers, the Han responded in turn with massed mounted crossbowmen who were also equipped with melee weapons.

Above: a Han dynasty infantry sighting a target using the marker on the back of the metal crossbow trigger. Below: Han dynasty relief depicting a Han mounted crossbow man with Hand crossbow (Shou Nu/ 手弩)  pursuing a Xiongnu warrior firing backward from his saddle.

Unfortunately Wei Qing's campaign was mixed overall, his first concerted attack was a great success, and he followed up one month later with other attack: Wei's own column was able to pin then kill or capturing more than 10,000 Xiongnu warriors. Unfortunately for him, two of his other subcommanders in the campaign failed him in a spectacular manner. The campaign's 3,000-strong vanguard was commanded by generals Su Jian 蘇建 and Zhao Xin 趙信 (a defected Xiongnu prince given a Han command) encountered the main Xiongnu force led by Yizhixie Chanyu himself and was overwhelmed. The defeat was particularly humiliating because Zhao Xin defected back to the Xiongnu during the battle, taking his 800 ethnic Xiongnu subordinates with him. Su Jian barely escaped after losing all his men in the brutal fighting.  

This area had strategic significance as a traditional invasion corridor used by Xiongnu forces to hammer against Han territory. The terrain featured rolling hills transitioning to the Mongolian Plateau—ideal steppe country for the horse-archer tactics at which the Xiongnu excelled. Previous Han commanders had approached this region cautiously, maintaining defensive postures behind frontier fortifications or venturing out only with substantial infantry support.

This setback cast a shadow over the campaign's overall success. According to Han military protocols, despite his own section's high performance: Wei Qing's forces received no promotions or rewards despite their substantial victories elsewhere on the battlefield. Su Jian was sentenced to be executed and was only saved at the personal intervention of Wei Qing. It was against this backdrop that Huo Qubing distinguished himself in a manner that reinforced the Emperor's favor. Rather than remaining with the main force, Huo led a highly mobile detachment of 800 light cavalry and ventured out, personally seeking the Xiongnu for battle. 

Music: A Thousand Arrows

FORLORN HOPE

Despite the small size of his force, rather than engaging in the expected pattern of limited probing actions, large scale battle, followed by withdrawal to fortified positions, he did the opposite and led his small force deep into enemy territory—"Record of the Grand Historian" records that he took his small force "several hundred li" beyond the main army alone. This penetration placed his command well beyond any possibility of reinforcement or rescue should they encounter superior forces, a remarkably risky maneuver that violated conventional military doctrine of the time.

Operating independently in enemy territory without secure supply lines or communication—his light cavalry operated more like a dedicated special force—striking unexpectedly, avoiding direct confrontation with main forces, and prioritizing high-value targets. During this raid, Huo's soldiers ran into a Xiongnu army led by the Chanyu's grandfather. Huo Qubing's force killed over 2,000 Xiongnu warriors including the grandfather and captured multiple high-value Xiongnu nobles while suffering minimal casualties. 

This tactic exploited a fundamental vulnerability of the Xiongnu confederation—their decentralized structure meant that distant camps attacked in isolation could not quickly summon assistance from other tribal units. As such, even encampments of VIPs of the highest ranks are easy prey should they be found and annihilated with a dedicated mobile force.

Huo had demonstrated that small, highly mobile Han cavalry units could operate effectively even deep in Xiongnu territory, challenging the conventional wisdom that the nomadic confederation held an insurmountable advantage in mobile warfare. 

Emperor Wu, instantly recognizing the potential of the young commander, rewarded him with the title Marquess of Guanjun 冠军 ("Unparalleled Excellence" though today it has come to mean "Champion" because of the peerless association with Huo) with a march of 2,500 households—an extraordinary honor for an 18-year-old officer on his first independent command. Guanjun was equal to Ranged Marquis: the highest title of nobility for subjects who were not from the imperial family of the Han dynasty and able to retain titles with tens of thousands of households.

Rather than maintaining communication lines and secure supply routes, he operated independently, striking Xiongnu encampments with devastating surprise attacks, capturing thousands of enemies, and returning with minimal losses. This operation immediately established his reputation for tactical brilliance and bold risk-taking.

The scale of this reward, typically reserved for senior commanders after years of service, indicated both Huo's exceptional achievement and Emperor Wu's deliberate cultivation of new military leadership outside traditional aristocratic channels. More importantly, Emperor Wu now viewed Huo as a potential executor of his grand strategic vision for permanent resolution of the Xiongnu threat.

Music: To the West

121 BC- COMMAND DEBUT

THE HEXI CAMPAIGN: STRATEGIC MASTERY

In the spring of 121 BC, the 19 year old Huo Qubing was given his first truly independent command, and was empowered to lead 10,000 cavalry to wrestle control of the Hexi Corridor from Xiongnu control. After decades of defensive and limited offensive operations, the emperor now sought decisive action to permanently secure Han's frontiers. The campaigns would target the western territories of the Xiongnu confederation—regions that held both strategic and economic importance for both empires. The Xiongnu guarded the region with 5 entrenched tribal kingdoms. These operations would prove to be Huo Qubing's masterpiece of military planning and execution, establishing him as the preeminent fighting commander of his generation. He would finish all five kingdoms in only 6 days. 

The Hexi Corridor—a narrow strip of relatively fertile land running between the Tibetan Plateau and the Gobi Desert—functioned as the only critical east-west passage connecting China proper to Central Asia. Whoever controlled this narrow corridor could regulate trade along what would later become the eastern portions of the Silk Road. By this point, the famous Han diplomat Zhan Qian has returned his exploration of the west and had reported of many curious peoples and cities to Emperor Wu.

The campaign began when the passes through the Qilian Mountains would first become navigable after winter snows. Intelligence gathered by Han diplomats and spies indicated that five Xiongnu tribes (kingdoms) are guarding the corridor. Huo began his attack vigorously, and within six days all five kingdoms were subdued in battle. Xiongnu casualties amounted around 9,000- 10,000, 2 of the 5 ruling princes were slain in battle against Huo's forces, a crown prince of one of the princely chieftain was captured, and only the last made out alive from Huo's cavalry. Huo also captured the statue of a Golden Man idol used by Xiongnu for holy rituals. For this achievement, his march was increased by 2,200 households.

Despite the staggering achievements of Huo's lightning campaign, Han quickly angled for a 2nd campaign to press their advantages. This time with the goal of dislodging the Xiongnu completely from the key areas near the Qilian and Yanzhi mountains. Huo too understood that controlling key geographical features would permanently alter the strategic equation and ahcor Han within the corridor. Qilian and Yanzhi mountains provided the Xiongnu with vital summer pastures for their horses.

Anchoring the south of the Hexi Corridor- the formidable Qilian mountains perennially traps passing cloud moisture that passes from west to east. These forced rainfall created a lone belt or rivers and rich pastureland (and fertile soil in the future) along the Corridor. On 2 either far end of the Corridor stretched large deserts and arid plateaus.

The summer campaign of the same year was far more ambitious in scope. The overall Han plan called for 2 grand Han armies to march deep into Xiongnu territories from 2 separate directions and then converge BEHIND the Xiongnu position then launch an overwhelming surprise assault that would entirely catch the Xiongnu by surprise. One of the prongs would be led by Huo Qubing, the other would be lead by commander Gongsun Ao with half of the reinforcements from the south.

Music: Will of Tengri

(AGAIN) BEHIND ENEMY LINES

After resting and replenishing troops, Huo Qubing departed from Longxi (eastern Gansu) with more than 10,000 cavalry. However, fortune did not smile upon him. when Gongsun Ao failed to keep pace with Huo's rapid advance and became lost and was forced to turn back with his whole army. Instead of conservatively pulling back to return the Han frontlines, young general made the extremely bold decision to continue alone skirting the edge of the extremely arid Gobi desert.

Though half of the initial grand Han invasion force was turned back, Huo chose to press on alone with his own soldiers along the treacherous Gobi desert. 

What followed was one of the most audacious deep penetration operations in Chinese military history. Without support and with minimal supply lines, Huo's forces traveled over 2,000 li, crossing inhospitable near desert terrain past Juyan Lake to reach the Qilian Mountains. The operational risks were enormous—his forces were operating hundreds of miles from friendly territory, in challenging terrain where the Xiongnu traditionally held every advantage.

Yet the campaign achieved devastating results. Huo's forces emerged suddenly from the flank of the completely flatfooted Xiongnu army and drove the astounded foes head long east right toward the Han frontlines. The Hexi Corridor became an inescapable death tunnel. Xiongnu losses were staggering, with the rapid death of over 30,000 Xiongnu warriors and the capture of 59 Xiongnu princes (Chieftains), 5 of Chanyu's own blood princes, and their mothers, 63 Xiongnu ministers, generals, and captains. 

Rainbow Mountains: Zhangye National Geopark- Hexi Corridor

By autumn of 121 BC relentless Han tempo prevented the scattered Xiongnu forces from regrouping or establishing defensive positions. The strategic consequences of these campaigns extended far beyond the immediate battlefield victories. One of the surviving Xiongnu princes: the Prince of Hunxie 渾邪王, who had lost heavily to Huo recognized the futility of continued resistance, he initially planned to surrender to the Han. However another Prince of Xiutu 休屠王 refused, and Hunxie killed him, thereafter Hunxie's 40,000 tribesmen and Xiutu's 8,000 tribesmen made their way to the Han border to surrender  However, before closing the deal the Xiutu tribesmen rioted at seeing Huo Qubing's army's banners. 

Seeing the situation changed, Huo Qubing alone headed to the Xiongnu camp. There, the general ordered the Prince of Hunxie to calm his men and stand down before putting down 8,000 Xiongnu men who refused to disarm, effectively quelling the riot. The Hunxie tribe was then resettled into the Central Plain. The mass surrender of these remaining tribes in the west fundamentally altered the strategic equation in the Han- Xiongnu war. 

By the end of Emperor Wu's over half a century of reign the empire would have doubled in size and expanded on nearly all fronts (blue.) After Huo Qubing's 121BC Campaign Han dynasty secured the entirety of the Hexi Corridor. Four new Han commanderies were established on these lands, The move stripped Xiongnu of any control over the Western Regions, depriving them of a large grazing area. Conversely it also ensured Han's western frontiers. As a result, the Han dynasty successfully opened up the Silk Road, allowing direct trade access to Central Asia. In the future this also provided a new supply of high-quality horse breeds from Central Asia, including the famed Ferghana horse, further strengthening the Han army. From this point, the Xiongnu was mostly forced on the defense.

Emperor Wu moved quickly to consolidate these gains, establishing five commanderies throughout the Hexi Corridor and constructing new laps of fortified Great Walls to secure the newly conquered territory. Most significantly, he initiated a massive colonization program, settling hundreds of thousands of Han soldier-farmers in the region to create a permanent Han presence. These military-agricultural colonies transformed what had been contested borderlands into an integrated part of the Han imperial system, creating a demographic and cultural buffer against future Xiongnu incursions. On his way back to the capital, Huo Qubing passed Pingyang County where he was born and brought his half brother Huo Guang who was 17 years old back to Chang'an , thus starting Huo Guang's political career- in the future Huo Guang would effectively became the Grey Eminence of the Han dynasty for many decades presiding the golden age of the empire.

Huo was greatly rewarded for this achievement. His subordinates Zhao Ponu, Gao Bushi, and Pu Duo were all granted titles of nobility for their military achievements.

After the series of defeats by Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, Yizhixie Chanyu took Zhao Xin (the ethnic Xiongnu Han general who had turned traitor during Wei Qing's campaign and turned with his 800 soldiers)'s advice and retreated with the great Xiongnu host north of the Gobi Desert, hoping that the vast stretch of barren land would serve as a natural barrier against Han offensives. Unfortunately for him, this did not. Emperor Wu as well his generals were itching for a renewed offensive and was amassing a decisive northern expedition. 

Music: Closing Upon the Enemy

THE NORTHERN JUDGEMENT

The Han committed a massive maul for this decisive strike. According to "Record of the Grand Historian"- Volume 110, Account of the Xiongnu, No. 50, "Book of Han," and the later "Zizhitongjian" the Han stockpiled over 100,000 cavalrymen and 140,000 additional horses. Supplemented with additional hundreds of thousands of crossbowmen and halberdiers as rearguards: including a large but unspecified number of large "chariots" that are in reality more akin to war wagons.

FURTHEST REACHES CAMPAIGN

In 119 BC, the Han prepared a massive coordinated campaign against the Xiongnu core territories beyond the Gobi Desert. This expedition represented the most ambitious Han offensive to that date, with over 100,000 cavalry stockpiled, 140,000 additional horses and hundreds of thousands of infantry and supply wagons. Originally Wu mulled over whether to let Huo lead the grand offensive under his sole command, however when a surrendered Xiongnu captive informed Wu that the Chanyu had also portioned out a sizeable portion of his army under the command of the Tuqi King of the Left in the east, Wu resorted to splitting the northern offensive in 2 large prongs, one would be led by Huo Qubing, the other by his uncle Wei Qing as supreme commanders- with a large assembly of subcommanders under each.

Organization of the Xiongnu regional commands. The defensive arrangement could be thought of akin to a boxer with 2 arms extended out for battle. The Chanyu often would command the central army, with the administrative center of the confederacy usually close to the central reaches of the realm. On the flanks- command would often fall into a Tuqi King of the Left or Right/ alternatively Worthy King of the Left respectively in the east and west. Knowing that there are 2 large hosts lying in wait- Wu divided the Han response.

Huo Qubing was expected to find the Chanyu and deliver the killing blow- for this purpose his army was furnished with the best imperial cavalry. Comparatively Huo's prong per usual carried less baggage and provisions and greatly relied on speed while Wei Qing's army was more intended as a rearguard with the long baggage train. Wei Qing's army was sub- commanded by: Li Guang Gongsun He, Zhao Shiqi, Cao Xiang. Huo Qubing's was sub-commanded by: Xingshan, Fulu Zhiyi , Jiqian, Zhao Po Nu , Zhao Anji, Li Gan, Xu Ziwei

WEI QING'S MARCH

The initial strategic plan called for Huo Qubing to attack from Dingxiang to engage the Chanyu's main force, while Wei Qing would support from the Dai Commandery to engage the Tuqi King of the Left. The 2 large imperial columns marched out under nephew and uncle. However discontent among some of Wei Qing's officers made his command trying. Li Guang, the old "Flying General" who was once promised a Marquis by Emperor Wu's grandfather- who had by now seen younger rule breakers like Huo Qubing race far ahead to his desired position in a fraction of his time, was desperate to secure his own victory in battle Li Guang insisted that he wanted a vanguard position as promised by Emperor Wu. 

Unfortunately in reality the emperor had secretly told Wei to staunchly refuse that proposal because Li Guang's long streak of bad luck (previously when Huo Qubing conquered the west Li Guang had also ventured out in another front and by sheer luck ran directly into the Chanyu's crack forces had his troops mauled and made back only after escaping from his captors). Wei Qing thus assigned Li Guang to combine forces with another commander Zhao Shiqi on a barren eastern flanking route, an arrangement that Li heavily protested against and left in anger.

This eventually diluted the strength of Wei Qing's own prong- as Li Guang proved to be unreliable. Li Guang departed in anger, however, bad luck would continue to indeed plague him. Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi got lost in the wilderness and completely miss out all of the battles in this campaign, thus rendering his sizeable division of troops useless to the now more vulnerable Wei Qing.

Music: Blood for the Sky God

HUO QUBING'S RIDE

Huo Qubing led Lieutenant Li Gan and others out of the border, carried a small amount of baggage and food, drove and captured many Xiongnu along the way. Marching over 2,000 li, he crossed the desert, crossed the river to capture the Xiongnu ministers from their camps. Soon he encountered upon a large Xiongnu host~ but instead of the Chanyu's best, instead he found the Tuqi King's horde. The resulting battle was devastating for the Xiongnu. 

Huo Qubing's eastern prong consisted of the most elite cavalry divisions from the empire and though the battle was not covered in detail it was a decisive victory with the more elite Han prong overawing the relatively weaker Xiongnu host he faced. Again Huo Qubing outdid his previous numbers, annihilating some 70,000 Xiongnu forces and suffering 10% to his prong's strength and 20~30% losses to his cavalry. On his way he was also joined by Lu Bode- the governor of the Beiping Commandery at the time- his army also slew some 2,800 foes on his own account. Lu Bode would later play a pivotal role in the Han conquest of Nanyue and taking of Hainan island.

Huo's forces rapidly encircled and killed 70,443 enemy troops and eliminated the Tuqi King / Worthy Prince of the Left. The battle was swift and decisive, as the Worthy Prince's forces were no match for Huo's elite cavalry. Huo also captured 3 subordinate kings, and as well as 83 VIP enemy high ranking captains, ministers, and nobles. While at the same time Huo's own side~ according to the "Record of the Grand Historian" and "Book of Han" suffered 10% losses overall and 20~30% casualty rate to his cavalry: amounting to some 10,000- 15,000 cavalry lost but were quickly resupplied from local tribesmen.

THE WORLD'S EDGE

In order to secure his wake, he allowed local tribes such as the Donghu People- who had been subjugated under the Xiongnu decades prior~ to retake back their land to establish their own confederacy and declared independence from their Xiongnu overlords. Following this victory, Huo Qubing pushed even deeper into Xiongnu territory, advancing to the Khentii Mountains—considered sacred by the Xiongnu. Most remarkably, Huo Qubing continued his pursuit campaign as far as Lake Baikal (瀚海). On his returning journey, Huo Qubing conducted rites and rituals on the Khentii Mountains which honored Han ancestors. 

Khentii was located at the sacred heart of the Confederacy, and Baikal represented some of its furthest reaches. Huo had now demonstrated that even their most distant territories were now vulnerable to Han military operations.

He then joined forces with a column commanded by Han governor Lu Bode, governor of the Han Right Beiping Commandery in what is today's modern Inner Mongolia, who rode back with his own 2,800 enemy kills. The combined forces then returned in triumph. However despite his decisive victory, the most important battle in the theater did not fell upon him. It turned out that the Xiongnu captive who informed Emperor Wu of the Xiongnu deployments had lied. Wei Qing was marching right into the maw of the Chanyu's ambush.

Music: Scourge of God

MOBEI- WEI QING'S ROUTE

After a journey of over 800 km (500 mi), Wei Qing's column ran directly into the Chanyu's main forces of 80,000 cavalry lying in ambush. This was completely unexpected, as the original strategy was to let Huo Qubing's elite troops deal with the Chanyu's elite cavalry. 

Although setting off with less expectations from Emperor Wu, the western theater proved more dramatic. 

Wei Qing's Han forces were already tired and outnumbered after its own long march, especially since Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi's eastern division had completely not yet arrived back to rejoin their number. Meanwhile the Chanyu's host had been waiting for this precise moment/ Without hesitation, the Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard of cavalry. 

Han dynasty tomb relief depicting battle of Han soldiers vs Xiongnu warriors: the Han are distinguished by their armors and shields while the Xiongnu denoted by their conical felt hats.

Wei Qing immediately recognized the odds against him and the danger of an exposed formation in open plains and quickly took defensive countermeasures. He ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armored war wagons known as wuguang wagons 武刚车 (lit. "Unyielding Fighting Wagon") into a large ring formations, that created a wagon fort whereby his infantry and cavalry hid behind.

Wuguang Wagon 武刚车 from later dynasties: in this later version they are presented as a hybrid of a wheelbarrow and mobile pavise screen. As such, whole trains of supply wagons can~ if needed, quickly rearrange into a defensive wagon fort. Further it is likely the Han variants were larger in size.

Wei Qing's quick thinking saved the entire army from immediate destruction, and was able to allow the tide of the Xiongu forces to crash against his lines and not have the Han formations break. With the initial ambitious charge neutralized, for the rest of the day the Han and Xiongnu forces the battle descended into an endless probing along the Han circle. The battle devolved into a stalemate with neither side making significant gains or losses. However by dusk, everything changed. 

Music: Soaring Dragons

When dusk descended, a heavy sandstorm obscured the whole battlefield. Wei Qing decided to the take tactical advantage of the confusion created by the storm and then sent out his own crack cavalry from 2 prongs to crash against the Xiongnu's position. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and managed to encircled the Chanyu's army from both flanks. Unable to see the numbers of the coming enemy the Xiongnu position were overwhelmed, and when both side of their flanks reported Han encirclement panic set in and the Xiongnu broke from the field. 

With his forces annihilated, the Chanyu barely escaped capture with the escort of only a few hundred men. The Han forces killed over 19,000 enemies at Mobei and pursued the enemy for the remainder another 160 km (100 mi) to the Khangai Mountains in the west where they besieged then captured the Fortress built by the defector Zhao Xin in the Orkhon Valley. After a day spent regrouping and receiving fresh supplies, the Wei Qing's forces burned the stronghold to the ground, before returning in triumph.

For a brief spell, there was simply silence in the northern frontier. The Chanyu's position had been weakened so such an extent that he was not found by any of his larger hosts until another Chanyu had been appointed in his stead. With this swiftly rectified with, the Xiongnu retreated further deeper into Central Asia. For the Han, on Wei Qing' returning trek, they were met with Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi's lost forces, which had not done any battle in the campaign. The displeased Emperor Wu summoned both for extensive investigation (and almost guaranteed punishment or stripping of rank and honors upon return) in order to preserve a semblance of honor, Li Guang committed suicide.  

VICTORY- AND ITS COST

Although the Chanyu avoided capture, The northern campaign proved to be decisive- though with several less than immediate effects. Both Han columns distinguished themselves well in victory, with Huo's 70,000 damage inflicted and Wei Qing's 19,000 + Lu Bode's 2,800 the Xiongu lost around 80,000~ 90,000 casualties. This campaign effectively broke Xiongnu power for a generation.

Though the Han won, the victory came at that of a figurative limb. Wei's army lost a comparable number of casualties to that of the Chanyu's (~19,000). Han army lost almost 80% of their horses on these expeditions, in total some 100,000 extremely expensive warhorses bred for 4 generations of emperors were lost. Economic pressure on the central Han government led to new taxes being introduced, increasing the burden on average peasants. After Mobei the Han returned to lick up their figurative wounds. Regardless: Wu as a statesman knew all along the greatest asset of his empire's strength, Han's sheer populace and economic ability to afford sheer numerical losses that would cripple all of its surrounding enemies. His empire could afford to grind his enemies to death while keep taking heavy blows. 

The Xiongnu, however, suffered an even more lethal blow, as their military losses would reflect directly on their economy. Apart from loss of manpower due to wartime casualties and diseases, the nomadic Xiongnu lost innumerable livestock, the economic foundation of their society and state. After Mobei the Xiongnu entered into a protracted decline unable to match their former days. What's more, they would eventually fell to division. By the time of the 1st century AD the Confederacy would be divided into 2 branches, with the Southern Xiongnu pledging allegiance to the Han while the north was annihilated. The balance, although not immediately apparent, has been truly changed.

For this victory Huo's personal holdings was then increased further by 5,400 households- bringing his total territorial reward to 10,100 households—a landholding that placed him among the highest nobility of the empire. 

After this victory, Wu began to prepare for Huo's future political career. When Wu nudged Huo Qubing to start a family and offered to offer quality matchups for high ranking marriage, Huo's brashness was even shown here and he answered with the following: 匈奴未灭，何以家为？"the Xiongnu are not yet eliminated, why should I start a family?" which impressed the emperor.

BLOOD HONOR

One year later in 118 BC, Huo Qubing demonstrated that he could be very dangerous when truly crossed. Though a taciturn man by nature and only spoke few words, when his uncle was assaulted Huo Qubing drew blood. 

Fresco of a male archer from a Han Dynasty Tomb in Xian (Han era Chang'An)

Li Gan- Hou's subcommander~ also the late general Li Guang's son who very likely blamed Wei Qing for his father's death one year earlier, assaulted Wei Qing in private. Though Wei Qing forgave Li Gan, concealed his wounds, and kept the incident secret, Huo was livid when he found out. During one of the imperial hunting trips ordered by Wu near the capital, Huo shot Li Gan to death. Emperor Wu covered for Huo and gave the cover story that Li Gan was killed "by a deer."

Music: Beyond the River

UNTIMELY DEATH

In 117 BC, at only the age of 23 years of age, Huo Qubing died unexpectedly.  Historical records are frustratingly vague about the cause, mentioning only a brief illness- ironic to his apotropaic name name of Qubing 去病 "ward off sickness." Some scholars suggest he may have succumbed to injuries sustained during his campaigns, while others point to the possibility of overwork or illness exacerbated by the harsh conditions he endured during his northern expeditions. 

The Han dynasty by the end of Emperor Wu's rule and its golden age in the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Emperor Wu would go on to expand in all directions, eventually incorporating northern Vietnam, the Tarim Basin and Ferghana Valley, and northern Korea in his conquests. His much- expanded Han Great Walls would stretch from 1 end of the north to the other across scalding deserts and barren steppe.

Huo Qubing was not without his saving graces and in historical recollection: one popular anecdote related that when he was greatly rewarded for his great feats in his 121 BC Hexi campaigns the imperial envoys brought him a rare vat of the finest imperial wine. However, unwilling to enjoy it alone, Huo instead lined his soldiers along a nearby spring and then poured the vat into the spring so he and the soldiers can enjoy it together, thenceforth the spring was dubbed Jiuquan: or "Wine Spring".

Emperor Wu's grief at Huo's death was profound and public. He personally oversaw the construction of an elaborate tomb for the young general near Chang'an, shaped to resemble the Qilian mountains that Huo had conquered. This Mausoleum of Huo Qubing still stands today near modern Xi'an.

After all, in his wake, an empire's strategic landscape changed, and with hindsight, China's.

ASSESSMENT- A NEW DAWN

Huo Qubing's military career, though spanning only six years, fundamentally altered China's strategic position. Undefeated in battle. His campaigns secured the northern frontier, opened access to Central Asia, and broke Xiongnu military power for decades. More subtly, his successes validated Emperor Wu's expansionist policies and contributed to a period of unrivalled Han military dominance that would last for generations in nearly all directions. Unlike many ancient commanders who built careers through incremental gains over decades, Huo compressed extraordinary achievements into a brief timespan. His combined victories resulted in the incorporation of nearly 175,000 square miles of territory into the Han empire—an expansion unprecedented scale at the time, and with modern hindsight, permanence. The frontier defenses he helped establish endured long after his death, forming the foundation of China for centuries and across millennias. 

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Armor Made by: Harentang 函人堂 Studio

BONUS: Some of the heaviest of Western Han soldiers from this era. Heavy West Han dynasty iron fish scale 铁鱼鳞甲 armor recovered from the northern suburbs of Xian- or Chang'An, once the capital of the West Han dynasty. Constructed of many overlapping scales. The pauldrons are sewn to the scale coat and there is a scaled skirt sewn underneath the torso protection. More on contemporary Han armors of this age check out this link.