Wu Zetian's Stabilization of the West: 武周镇西

Music: Smoke Rises High

This is a focused excerpt from the much longer 2 part series about the rise of Wu Zetian and her performance as emperor (not merely empress but sovereign) in her own dynasty. This article will be solely focused on her foreign policy in the west regarding the Tibetan Empire. During this era the Tang (then Wu's own Zhou) fought continuously with the Tibetan Empire mostly over the territory of what is today's arid Qinghai region and the Tarim Basin. For the next 150 years until the implosion of the Tibetan Empire the 2 great empires would be characterized by titanic clashes in the western reaches. We shall see how Wu- as both de facto power and then sole sovereign stabilized the West during her tenure. 

Wu's origins are given more coverage in the full articles, the abridged version is that she was born to a rich timber merchant's family and was given an advanced education in a broad sweeping array of subjects. She then joined the imperial harem of Taizong (as a secretary) and when Taizong passed became the successor Gaozong's chief empress. As a political outsider with considerable ambitions, in order to build up her own power and outmaneuver the entrenched establishment in Chang'an she built up and elaborated a parallel capital at Luoyang. 

She then convinced her husband to lower barriers for imperial promotions to rungs of the talented lower nobility. Then, she elevated these ranks into her own cabinet of officials. When Gaozong's health severely deteriorated and his dizziness turned into stroke and comas. Wu was elevated by the ministers she elevated into position to take over. Even when Gaozong recovered, her performance was so remarkable that Gaozong entrusted her to be a co-ruler. Gaozong consulted her nightly on all policy decisions and would trust her to translate his decisions into drafted edicts. At times, even empowered her to write edicts independent of him. Thereafter, Wu expended her role into the imperial court itself. During court sessions she sat behind a curtain behind Gaozong and all decisions were passed between both Gaozong and Wu and the 2 were dignified as the "Two Saints" 二圣. 

Luoyang- the ancient capital of both Zhou dynasty (Eastern Zhou) and Han (Eastern Han) was chosen as a parallel capital. Wu also brought in Gaozong to reside there outside of the reach of the Chang'an establishment. In time, Wu built up her own grand palaces and monuments to aggrandize her own prestige. 

The empire as of 660-663 AD with Tang (orange) and extended Protectorates (yellow) This was achieved by both Gaozong as well as Wu acting as his co-ruler. 

During the 660s-670s, under the combined rule of the imperial couple, Tang reached its territorial zenith. With an area of ​​12.37 million square kilometers. It stretched from the Taedong River in the Korean Peninsula in the east, to the Aral Sea in the west, to Lake Baikal in the north, and northern Vietnam in the south. In the far west the empire vassalized as far as modern Afghanistan.

Music: Wise Voice

Haloed Tibetan warrior in heavy lamellar armor- Jokhang Temple. He wears an elaborate belt bedecked with multi- colored inlays and at his side straps a highly ornate jewel- encrusted straight cutting sword. Only a generation ago the Tibetan Empire emerged from a collection of smaller states to a formidable expansionist power. Under the Yarlung dynasty in central southern Tibet, the Tibetan Emperor Songtsen Gampo consolidated its hold over that of the rival Zhangzhung kingdom to its west and made the Tibetan Empire a vast area that covered all of the snow capped Himalayan Plateau. It was a highly centralized state.

It was during this middle reign that Tang's neighbors and vassals aggressively exerted external pressure, Tibetan empire invaded Tang vassal states, and then took the war to Tang directly a decade later. During this era the Tang faced rebellions from the Khitans, Gokturks, Korean kingdoms, and soon repeated wars with the Tibetan Empire.

THE WESTERN CONTENTION

The extremely wind eroded Yardang Landform in modern Qinghai. The contested region with respective distance to Chang'an (Xian) and Lhasa shown. The red represent the Silk Road which extends all the way to Constantinople. The entire region was arid and very sparsely populated. In centuries past it was a kingdom called the Tuyuhun ruled by Xianbei Chieftains. However eventually the kingdom fell to Tang sway under Taizong's reign. Southern Qinghai- called A zha by the Tibetans formed an important buffer region between the Tibetan Empire and a critical narrow choke point of the Tang empire called the Hexi Corridor. If the Tibetan Empire was able to sever the Corridor the Tang western regions of Anxi (Tarim basin) would all fell into Tibetan hands. And with it greater control of the Silk Road.

Modern Reeactors in Tibetan armor (left) reconstructed from the 10th century Guge Kingdom's example and in Tang armor (right) by King of Wuzhen - Jie Ge reconstructed based on imperial guards from Tomb of Princess Changle (长乐公主墓), Zhao Mausoleum. 

Music: Black Cloud, Red Fire

Both born in the same generation, and both born as expansionary powers. The Tang and Tibetan Empire relations began with tension then peace. After uniting all of the Himalaya Plateau under its sway the Tibetan empire's ambitious turned east. Initially they sought out a Tang princess but the offer was rebuffed, then it invaded the Tang garrisons in the west in Sichuan. Outcome differed in Tibetan and Tang records but the Tibetan empire then sent its talented Prime Minister (Lönchen) Gar Tongtsen Yulsung to conduct the peace accord with favorable proposals to both parties and request a Tang princess. Taizong was so impressed by him that relationships stabilized between the 2 powers. Peace endured for the remainder of Taizong and Songtsen Gampo's reign. 

However after Songtsen Gampo's passing the throne fell under the nominal rule of a very young child emperor. In reality, power at this time fell under the sway of the powerful Gar Tongtsen who became regent to the young Emperor. During his leadership, power coalesced around a group of nobles that favored circumventing the Tang hegemony. There after, the empire forged alliances with Turkic powers in the west in Ferghana and also Arab states to outflank the Tang. Striking out from the crest of mountains that formed the western rim of the Tarim Basins, the Tibetans- allied with Turkic allies attacked from the west and breached into the Tarim Basin.

Then Gar Tongtsen made an unpredictable move, returned to the empire then launched an invasion in th east in the Qinghai region, managing to snatched a large section of Qinghai- what once was the Tuyuhun kingdom away from the Tang. When the Tang launched a large punitive response but due to high level infighting between commanders the Tang was dealt a crushing defeat by the Tibetans. Because of the extreme aridness of the region and lack of development and transportation, the Tang forgo attempt to reconquer this region. The refugees of Tuyuhun origin were allowed to shelter and resettle in Tang. Further west, the Tibetan Empire launched repeated incursions into the Tang held Tarim Basin and would continue to invade the region for the next 150 years. After Gar Tongtsen's meritorious victories, he left behind much of the imperial power to his sons, who ruled over various part of the Tibetan empire as its regional warlords.

During the late 670s in the other eastern side of the empire Silla and Tang went into war and Silla managed to repel the Tang from southwest Korean then united all of Korean south of the Taedong river. Silla then tried to secure what was former territories of Goguryeo by fostering rebellions while Tang tried to stabilize the region with former Goguryeo nobles to act as Tang proxies. 

It was also in this final phase of Gaozong's life that the Gokturks in the north frequently erupted in rebellions. Gaozong's martial father was successful in defeating, annexing, then releasing the Khaganate under Tang sway, and was elected the Tengri Khagan (Heavenly Khagan) by the Gokturk princes. Gaozong ensured its vassalage in 650 at his ascension. However after 3 decades, soon multiple rebellions would erupt in 676, 680, 681, and finally in 682. Frequently, the Tibetan Empire aided and supported such claimants.

Tang remedy would be both diplomatic as well as militaristic. Tang excelled at courting competing candidates against the instigating party and often used them as counterweight against the rebel faction. This would be aided by cunning and experienced Tang generals like Pei Xingjian 裴行儉 who was able to crush multiple revolts and install Tang- back candidates into position. 

Pei Xingjian 裴行儉- a decisive veteran Tang general. When a Tang appointed Gokturk commander rebelled in 676 and declared himself Khagan, allied with the Tibetan empire and pillaged Tang west. He used the ruse of escorting the Sassanian refugee prince Peroz's son Narsieh to the west (ostensive to fight the Arab Umayyads) with a small inconspicuous contingent, however during the trek he snuck out to find the other Turkic tribes opposing to the newly minted Khagan and rallied a grand anti- Khagan army that crushed the rebellion. He would crush multiple other attempts later.

A cunning, fox like figure capable in diplomacy as well as warfare. He would prove decisive in personally stomping down multiple such rebellions. He scored a remarkable strings of victories against both the Tibetan Empire and also Gokturk rebels in the late 670s and early 680s. In 681 the Tibetan empire invaded the Tang's western lines in Qinghai they were also defeated and expelled.

When the Gokturks rebelled again in 682, Gaozong again summoned for Pei, however by this time the old general had died. Despite having been vassalized by the Tang for half a century the Gokturks established its 2nd Khaganate under Ashina Qutlugh who was named Ilterish Kaghan. This 2nd Gokturk Khaganate will be a matter that Gaozong's sons and Wu will contend with in the coming years.

The last year of Gaozong's reign was marked by crippling incapacity with him succumbing to terrible spells of sickness and strokes. Despite being attended by physicians at Luoyang his conditions grew so bad that eventually Wu had to took over most reins of power. On the last week of 683 in winter, Gaozong died, writing a will that demanded his heir Li Zhe follow the advice of several key ministers and respect his mother's counsel in all critical matters. In reality Li Zhe never had much power. Wu was threatened by Li Zhe's ambitious wife and had Li Zhe and his wife's clan banished. 

Dowager Empress- by now 60, Wu had been exercising executive power for 1/4 of a century by now. She would rule through her 2 weak sons for a decade while consolidating personal power.

Li Zhe's replacement Li Dan (Wu's 4th son) was even more amenable than his predecessor and Wu did not even bother passing on to him the trapping of power. During this era all decisions directly went to her and she did not bother with listening from behind the curtains. During these 7 years she aggressively purged rebellious Tang imperial princes and uncles and in matters of foreign policy warred with the Gokturks in the north and north east. After internally purging most of her rivals with her secret police, she made the outrageous bid to declare her own dynasty and becoming the only woman to style herself as "Emperor" Huangdi in China.

Music: Tribute

NEW IMPERIAL DYNASTY- FOUNDED BY A WOMAN

Art by ★陸曼陀★ LuDanling. Tang dynasty Princess with an elaborate Phoenix Crown.

In 690 Wu inaugurated her own Zhou dynasty and made Luoyang her imperial capital. Despite her enmity with the sidelined Tang imperial house, by and large, Wu remained popular with the masses of the empire. Standard of living was high, crises were responded with swift responses, and the empire continued to embark on lavish building projects from temples to Wu's own palaces. True to many templates of political outsiders coming into power- Wu elevated alternative power structures to implement her rule and keep her own imperial apparatus functional.

After the inauguration of her own dynasty, on 16 October Wu held the first imperial examination. Wu's first priorities were to guarantee talented and ambitious unknown individuals will find sponsorship in her own system. To circumvent the Tang imperial loyalist bloc. In 3 years Wu's administration further expanded the civil service examination system by allowing certain commoners and gentry previously completely disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to take the tests. 

Additionally she also enrolled candidates that came from under represented frontier regions. In order to ensure loyalty of these regions to her personally she sponsored expansion of schools in these previously underdeveloped areas so they would be able to produce enough passing candidates. These degree holders would then become a new nucleus of elite bureaucrats around which the Zhou government could center itself.

Music: See These Flames?

FOREIGN POLICY- CONTINUED TIBETAN, GOKTURK WARS

Golden plaque of a mounted Tibetan noblewoman. Hunting scene, the style shows striking Sassanian and Central Asian influences. The nobleman wears a distinctive turban and riding coat with Central Asian influences. His arrows are secured in a tubular arrow case. The Chinese called these cases húlù 胡禄. Al- Thani collection. The native residents of the Tarim Basin referred to the Tibetans as the "Red Faced Ones" and the Chinese as "White Faced Ones" because of the tradition of Tibetans to paint their faces deep red.

Tibetan nobles- note the turbaned nobles and Central Asian styled riding coats. At this time the Tibetan Empire was highly centralized with the Emperor wielding immense political and religious powers. Because of its centralized religious- driven framework the empire was staunchly Buddhist at the exclusion of other competing religions.

In matters of foreign policy Wu's Zhou largely inherited the previous struggles the Tang had with its regional competitors. The Tibetan empire still proved itself an aggressive rival with the broader aim of trying to align with the Gokturks to snip the Tang Hexi Corridor shut thereby completely isolating the Anxi Tang western regions (Tarim Basin in Xinjiang and Ferghana Valley) to fend for themselves. In 690 at what is today's Kazakhstan the Tibetans managed to defeat a Tang army near Issyk-Kul. The Zhou returned with a great army led by general Wang Xiaojie in 692 and repelled the Tibetan- Gokturk alliance and retook all of the the Anxi Protectorate lost from Gaozong's reign. Tang would hold on to the Tarim Basin for a century after.

Respective Goals: Tibetan aims attempted to cut off the Hexi neck weak point of the Zhou which formed the narrowest point of the ∞ shape and snatch up most of Anxi (Tarim Basin.) Meanwhile the Gokturk and Zhou aggressively contested for various proxies on the steppes. During Wu's rule much of the foreign policies were redirected toward the northwest of the empire. 

The Tibetans would continue to pressure Zhou (and Tang) territories for the next 150 years, reaching its apex after the An Lushan Rebellion. The empire would reach its zenith after Tang power waned. The majority of their aims were directed with the goal of snatching the Hexi Corridor and isolating the Zhou + Tang Tarim holdings. Tibetan cavalry were especially formidable and rode in battle with heavy armor. 

In 694 Qapaghan Kaghan (Ashina Mochuo~ brother of the founder of the 2nd Gokturk Khaganate and heir) raided Tang defenses in the north. Zhou organized a punitive expedition but by then the Gokturks had withdrew.

CRISIS: THE GREAT KHITAN REBELLION

In 696 Chinese troops led by generals Wang Xiaojie and Lou Shide invaded the Tibetan Empire in 696, but was beaten by the dynamic Tibetan generals Gar Trinring Tsendro and his brother Gar Tsenba. After this battle, Trinring earned high promotions in the Tibetan Empire. After this victory, the victor Gar Trinring Tsendro went to Chang'an in 696 to try to negotiate peace with Empress Wu Zetian, with demands that the Zhou remove all troops from Central Asia, Wu refused to negotiate. 

Top: Later Tibetan armors from the Guge Kingdom in the 10th century.

The Gar clan was already highly influential in Tibetan politics and continued to be inextricable from the Tibetan imperial politics. Despite the astounding victory, the victory became a manticore's tail for the victors. The unpredicted outcome of which Wu would make use of to her favor. However in the opposite direction of her Zhou empire's north, a sudden major threat exploded. In the summer of 696, the northeast of the empire (in what is today's Liaoning) exploded in rebellion and took over the neck of the Liaodong region in Yingzhou. 

Wu managed to persuade the Gokturks to attack the Khitans with extremely expensive gifts of silk and valuables along with raw materials. Satisfied, in 697 the Gokturks made a headlong attack at the Khitan capital. Khitans were crushed by the Gokturks and Sun Wanrong was slain, the Khitans thereafter became (disgruntled) vassals of the Gokturks. Yingzhou was recovered for the time being. A generation later the Khitans would rebel against the Gokturks and return to become Tang vassals. For the moment Wu was able to return her sights to the west.

Music: Perilous Path

A HUNT OF MAN IN THE TIBETAN EMPIRE

The next year an unexpected turn of even happened in the Tibetan Empire. The insecure Emperor Tridu Songtsen (once the child Emperor with sparse real authority,) was greatly threatened by the monopolization of power under the Gar clan. By 699 the clan had extensive military authority and were independently in charge of various sectors of the empire and were formidable regional warlords. Gar Songtsen had trained them well and each were dangerous in battle. And if they should act in conspiracy displace the imperial throne nothing would prevent them from attaining it. That year, the emperor pretended to organize a great hunt with many of the Gar family invited for the event. However during the trek he had the soldiers turn on the Gar and their supporters and massacred them. The Gar clan was then exterminated. 

The emperor then personally led the imperial army northward into the sand sea of Qinghai and confronted Gar Trinring Tsendro's army there. Despite his attempt at resistance, Gar Trinring Tsendro's army turned on him and he was forced to commit suicide. 

After hearing about this, his other brother Gar Tsenba surrendered to Zhou together with Trinring Tsendro's son/ Tsenba's nephew Mangpoje- or Lun Gongren (论弓仁) as known by Chinese- the Gar would then take Lun "论" as their Chinese last name. Wu Zetian welcomed the Gar generals, met him personally and heaped lavish titles upon him, including the title of Tejin (特进), Right Guard Senior General (右卫大将军) and Prince of Guide Commandery (归德郡王). He and his Tibetan troops were sent to Changsong (昌松, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) in the Hexi Corridor as a bulwark against the Tibetan Empire's ambitions against the neck. 

Early Tang general's armor. Figure: JiaoZong Model Tang Dynasty Gaozu Emperor 

Li Jing 1/6 Action Figure. Other contemporary armors: Tomb Guardian (General's Armor) from Wu Zetian's Zhou: Tomb relief from Li Wukui, Governor of Shazhou (Dunhuang- Hexi Corridor) Bottom: Shazhou garrison.

One year later in the fall of 700, the Tibetan general Khu Mangpoje Lhasung 麴莽布支 invaded Hexi with a massive well- armored army and put Changsong under siege in order to vanquish him. However the siege was resoundly crushed by Zhou general Tang Xiujing. 

The Tibetan defeat was serious, 2 of the subordinate Tibetan generals were slain in the battle and the general had the bodies stacked into a pile for display. Gar Tsenba would then faithfully serve his patrons, with his family adopting the last name of Lun 论. The date of Gar Tsenba's own eventual death was not recorded. However he was posthumously titled protector general of Anxi (安西大都护), the highest commandant of Protectorate General to Pacify the West, by Tang court after his death. Also after his great victory general Tang Xiujing eventually became a chancellor during Zhou and after a long career in politics (well after Wu Zetian) later retired with a high salary, and was later buried with full honor due a war hero. Tsenba's nephew Lun Gongren (forced suicide brother Trinring Tsendro's son) also became a famous Chinese general and was rewarded the title of Prince. 

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