UNIT: Heavy Song Crossbowmen: 宋代弓弩手

A Song dynasty armored crossbowman. During the Song pavise crossbowmen were deployed in significant numbers as concentrated armor-piercing crossbow volleys were the best counter to incoming armored cavalry charges. But to achieve miracles, they must stand as immoveable as mountains.

Music: Resurrection of the Dragon

Item: KongLingGe Song Dynasty Crossbowman 1/6 Figure Model

INHERITORS OF THE DRAGON

Northern Song dynasty at a glance: Northern Song (Red) and its 2 main regional rivals: the Khitan- led Liao Dynasty (Gold) to its northeast, and the Tangut- led kingdom of Xixia (lit. "Western Xia": in Gray) in the northwest. All 3 were major players by the end of 7 decades of post- Tang civil war and anarchy known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. During these times, the already strong Khitans in the northeast gained momentum and made ambitious forays into central China. When Song reunited much of the Chinese heartlands the 2 star-crossed ambitious empires came into headlong conflict.

FLASHPOINT: THE SIXTEEN PREFECTURES

Despite internal pacification and prosperity, the Song found itself in heated contention with its powerful neighbor to the north. The Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun- once part of the few early northern dynasties and was then signed away to the Khitans for their military support- was a highly volatile and geopolitically significant border between both the Liao and Song, and both empires soon warred for the possession of it. Despite early Song victories against the Liao after Song and the Song annexation of Northern Han, the Liao quickly regained the upper hand.

The Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun consisted of north of Shanxi and Hebei province. Dotted with difficult mountains and entrenched mountain passes- whoever possessed it has major advantage in terms of initiative to launch war on the other. Whoever possessed it has an extensive stretch of natural and manmade barriers and whoever did not only has flat lands ripe for invasion. The Song was rare in that it waas one of the few united Chinese imperial dynasties that does not have the stretch of the Great Wall secured. Hence its insecure posture and paranoid overcompensation.

For the vast majority of the Northern Song dynasty- the Khitan- led Liao empire would be Song's main arch rival. The Khitans were excellent cavalrymen and their state was well organized. One should not forget that after the implosion of the Tang large numbers of Tang subjects in the north submitted to the Khitans and the wise Khitans happily made use of the former Tang subject's service. 

The Khitan imperial domain could be bigger, in fact in the previous century it had proven to be able to do so. The Khitans themselves (above) knew well of this. The Sixteen Prefectures were initially ceded to the Liao for their military support to Later Jin (a struggling Northern dynasty) who assumed a humiliating subordinate position to the Liao. However when they later tried to back out from the submission the Liao under the strong Emperor Taizong of Liao:- Yelü Deguang invaded and crushed Later Jin, becoming the ruler of the northern Chinese heartlands with the ambition to become the Emperor of all of China. However their hold was brief, when rebellions sprouted across the Central Plains they returned home north.

During the Tang the Khitans and Tang had continuous clashes for centuries along their mutual border. However the Khitans eventually gained an upper hand in the 9th and 10th centuries. With a largely meritocratic leadership of war- minded princes and emperors the Liao consolidated nearly all northeast of the Song under their sway. 

A Song Minister in his distinctive vermilion silk court robes, and most of all, their black Zhanjiao Putou 展角幞头 (lit. "Horned Head Cover") official's hat.

During multiple Northern Song Emperor's rule the Song launched (over) ambitious expeditions to wrangle the Sixteen Prefectures with mostly mixed results. Having monopolized the prized pasturelands for war horses Liao often bested the Song armies in their constant clashes. In most of these wars the best outcome for the Song simply meant breaking even, then return to a precarious status quo in danger of being invaded again. 

NORTHERN SONG RESPONSES

Northern Song Cataphracts on imperial parade: the front row were equipped with huge crossbows (nu) the 2nd row bows and arrows, and 3rd row lances. The extremely long prods of the crossbows and the inclusion of the distinctive D shaped stirrup (the hoop on the top of the crossbow) have led many to surmise these weapons were drawn while dismounted then reserved for a deadly long range volley at a critical moment. Important to note the Song (and much medieval Chinese armies from Tang- Ming) often if not always paired crossbowmen units with archer units (Song had 2:1 ratio) as the bow compensated for the crossbow's slow reload and the crossbow compensated for the bow's lack of armor penetration. Modern stylized rendition here.

Khitan Liao cataphracts: The painting is a rendition of a Han dynasty lament poem, but the Xiongnus portrayed anachronistically as Khitans (distinguished by their bald pate and 2 sideburn ponytails.)  

Compared to the height of the Tang dynasty which were able to field as much as 700,000 warhorses for its war efforts, the Song could only manage to raise some 200,000 at its own height during the Northern Song. Despite these handicaps, as we shall see, the Song compensated and found new solutions that stabilized their own playing fields. 

Example of Chinese barding. The early 3 century of the Song dynasty from the 900s- late 1200s would see some of the heaviest cavalry deployed by nearly all warring states. Notably the Song for nearly all of its history would have the least access to prized war horses and vital pastures to raise war horses.

Music: Battle of Phoenix Hill

THE RENAISSANCE OF CROSSBOW

The First Golden Age of Chinese Crossbow: Han dynasty mass deployment of the crossbow. During the Han 1 millennium ago the crossbow was the main weapon of the Chinese armies. During the Song it would see it's second golden age.

Well Armored Infantry Blocks: The Song did have a robust military industrial complex. Armories, bolt makers, and later on gunpowder manufacturers were deeply integrated with the imperial military. Not only were Song crossbowmen well protected by pavises and augmented with nearby archer units that complemented their weaknesses, Song crossbowmen were also well armored. Some of the heaviest armored wore a variant of the 步人甲 Bu Renjia armor (right though they were made lighter) they weighed around 30 Kgs- and those worn by archers and especially crossbowmen were made slightly lighter by 5 Kgs. However a problem of this is the hefty drain on the imperial treasury.

He wears a wide brimmed felt hat called Fànyáng lì 范阳笠- distinguished by its domed top and plume. It is secured around the jaw with a strap. The Fanyang li were frequently wore by soldiers on campaigns from foot soldiers to meritorious officers- example of a Song garrison veteran. Song infantry typically wore a scarf over neck and rough overcoat. Calabash gourds serve as canteens. For melee combat he is armed with a one sided slashing chopper. The heaviest crossbowmen deployed would be armored with heavy lamellar helmets.

Example on a general:

Immovable As The Mountain: Heavy Song dynasty crossbowmen. Song discovered massed armor piercing crossbowmen were the best remedy for waves of heavy cavalry. Song crossbowmen were drilled to hold their position as if they were line infantry. The crossbowmen were protected by nearby archers and by the Southern Song dynasty they were also protected by very heavily armored infantry wielding halberds and horse choppers. 

"Nu" or the Crossbow- was invented in the late Spring and Autumn period and deployed in vast numbers during the Warring States period. Once, the crossbow were equipped in staggering numbers the Qin army had some 50 thousand of such troops and the Han (early Han still retained universal conscription service) made further mass adoption of such weapons. In one of the Han Dynasty armament records (《武库永始四年兵车器集簿》) there were 520000 crossbows in the arsenal, but only 70000 bows. Bolts were numbered over 11 million. 

Han dynasty bronze 3 piece triggers. Excavated Tang dynasty crossbow pieces only a few centuries prior to Song still retained this time- tested design. It's conservative to conclude that the Song did not deviate much from this trigger. Existing artworks and manuals also supports this.

In both contexts the weapon was extremely optimal in democratizing killing power: Unlike bowmenship, which takes a life time to perfect, the crossbow as well as its trigger mechanisms are very easy to use by even the simplest of the enlisted. 

Chinese Pavise with foldable leg and Song dynasty "Divine Arm" 神臂弩 crossbow with stirrups and horn bow prods. By the Song dynasty the technology has advanced to such a degree that crossbows made of mulberry and brass crossbow in 1068 that could pierce a tree at 140 paces. The Divine Arm itself was reputedly able to shoot as far as 240 paces and effective at killing around 150 paces. A "D" shaped stirrup hoop were added to the top of these bows and when fired from behind a wall of pavise in concentrated volleys (yes, volleys: we will discuss in detail next) they proved devastating to even well armored crashing waves of armored enemy horsemen.

Song Dynasty "Goose Arrayed Formation" or "Goose File Formation" with armored crossbowmen and archers prominently deployed.

Elite crossbowmen were also valued as long-range snipers; such was the case when the Liao general Xiao Talin was picked off by a large Song crossbow at the Battle of Shanzhou in 1004. His death in the heat of the fray caused the Liao army to retreat. Song fielded twice more crossbowmen than archers but often paired deployed crossbowmen with archers nearby to cover each's weaknesses.

One should remember things and subjects are not isolated- especially in history. That this clever deployment of Song crossbowmen blocks were not deployed in isolation but in CONJUCTION with normal Song efforts and campaigns. At times especially aggressive Song generals like Yang Ye and his son were able to defeat a formidable Liao army of 100,000 at Yanmen pass in 980 and repeated his great success 2 years later once again against the Liao, attacking well deep into Liao controlled parts of Shanxi. However the Song culmination to throttle Liao in the north in 986 was resoundingly defeated by the Liao army commanded by the regent Empress Dowager Chengtian who broke the Song army and slew Yang Ye.

Example of Song Dynasty Volley Fire in Wujing Zongyao: Early and more crude volley fire techniques had been well documented since the Tang dynasty. During an attack the Song crossbow volley fire formation divided the ranks into firing, advancing, and reloading lines from top to bottom. Not only was this technique very deadly against the Khitans in creating a constant volley but it proved deadly against the Jin cavalry in their Shaanxi campaign and were still used well after the Song's end.

The Song crossbowmen were instructed to behave thusly. In previous centuries the crossbowmen- despite their efficiency were terrified of coming cavalry charges. The Song specially trained its own crossbowmen to mitigate that fear by standing firmly and as a unit train their deadly barrage right on the center of the enemy's armored mass (remember heavy cavalry charges are always tightly clustered before impact.) 

Another even more powerful version of the crossbow were later fielded called the 克敌弓 Kedi nu lit. "enemy vanquishing crossbow" 

When left to their own devises. Active shooters will station beside the screen of pavises and shoot at incoming enemies while those who needs to reload will drift to the center. In this way the two will work interchangeably (so that those facing out will always be able to deliver fresh volleys) while those at the center finishes their reload and return to their shooting positions. 

With these reforms, the Song were able to achieve a state of parity against its many challengers. The crossbow would be heavily fielded throughout the dynasty. Their recruitment pool (and the hefty cost of their equipment) were mitigated somewhat after the radical reformer Wang Anshi instituted measures to streamline the military industrial supply chain and a new realm wide militia system to provide an adjacent (self- sufficient) reserve to bolster the Song ranks.

Music: Five Tiger Generals

RELENTLESS FOES FROM ALL SIDES

Western Xia general- possibly an Iron Sparrowhawk cavalryman.

Song's constant troubles were by no means limited to the northeast. War eventually broke out against the increasingly assertive Tangut- led state of Xixia from the west after the 1000s. Comparatively the Song faired better in its wars against Xixia than that of the Khitans but by no means should Xixia be underestimated. They rose to great prominence when the Tang fell and during the ensuring century was able to make themselves the undisputed masters of what was once- the Tang western reaches. 

Western Xia- or Xixia possessed excellent cavalry as well, and the elite cataphracts were called Iron Sparrowhawks 铁鹞子. From chapter 197 of "History of Song": it was mentioned these riders were all recruited from the sons of XiXia's aristocrats and their trusted companions and followers. The rider's armor is tied to the horse with ropes, thus he does not fall from the horse even when dead. Several fresh mounts were also brought along so that the unit can cover vast distances on campaigns.

 Of the many western wars fought against Xixia, an instance pertaining to the Iron Sparrowhawks recorded that the Song general Wang Ji engaged them at the Rabbit Fur River, the rebels (Xixia) surrounded his host with Iron Sparrowhawks, and bows and crossbows could not be used at such close range. Instead, Wang Ji's men then used the formation-cleaving swords to split open the Iron Sparrowhawks' armor and slit the horses' shanks. 

▷ 2 handed horse chopper- One of the ad hoc ways the Song countered the deployment of massed heavily armored cavalry was the use of massive 2 handed horse choppers for its foot soldiers. Often once the initial charge were resisted by the front row of pikemen these men would wade to the front and hack at the engaged enemy cavalry. Wang Anshi himself had been in favor of bladed cleaver polearms and during his tenure and after his office the Song shifted out their shield wielding spearmen and replaced them with either dedicated armored pikemen or cleaver troops.

After the Song cleavers waded through- the other horses galloped away, and those cavalrymen who fell of the cliffs to their death in the ravines could not be numbered. Ever since the beginning of the war in Shaanxi, only the Battle of the Rabbit Fur River has been a great victory, and it was thanks to the formation-cleaving sword. 

Song fought multiple engagement with Xixia for many decades, often with very mixed results though Song eventually achieved a degree of superiority in this front until the newly ascendant Jin reset the balance.

HOMEFRONT & EXILE

Trouble again came to the Song, but this time with a new face. Around 1125, the Liao were usurped by one of their powerful vassals~ the Jurchens, who after concluding an opportunistic alliance with the Song (with promise to split the Sixteen Prefectures) the Jurchens easily displaced their former overlords. Compared to their meteoric raise and swift gains, the Song performed poorly by comparison. The Jurchens eventually made themselves the undisputed masters of the former Liao holds. War soon erupted between Song and Jin over the possession of the Sixteen Prefectures. The Song performed horrendously in the ensuring war and lost its army on the field, the capital was threatened, then later was besieged and sacked by the Jurchens. For a space of time it seemed all was lost for the Song.  

A New Enemy: Jurchen Jin Dynasty Tiefutu or "Iron Pagodas" 铁浮图. Alternately they were translated as "Iron Buddhas," encased almost completely in armor save their eyes hand hands these cataphracts were a powerful fist of the Jin conquerors. Their charges were devastating and more fanciful versions recorded that in order to maximize a charge the fully armored horsemen would tie ropes or leather strings between the men to mow down any enemy infantry who stood between them (though this version- doubted by even later Qing historians is almost certainly not true.)

Of their tactics: 赵彦卫 Zhao Yanwei, a Song chronicler wrote: "The horsemen would make use of a deep wedged array, after plunging into the ranks of their foes would promptly retreat in a burst of speed, all the while arranging itself to stalk or encircle the enemy formation in a circular array for a while, while keeping an eye for another opportunity for a charge, and if situation demanded, they would dismount and fight as heavy infantry." 

REINVENTION- SOUTHERN SONG

However disaster also led to reinvigorations under the Song remnants. Against the relentless Jurchen- Jin dynasty, the Song army reformed itself. Against the devastating crack Jin cavalry the Song deployed dense formations of heavily armored infantry armed with anti- cavalry lances and pole arms, horse choppers, and supplemented by large blocks of heavily armored long range pavise crossbowmen. Song also began to use grenades and rockets and fire lances in siege defense and riverine warfare.

For thousands of years the imposing rivers of the Yangtze and the mountainous river gorges served as the breakwater for many invading armies from the north and a favorite point of resistance for southern defenders. 

For horses Tibet provided vital horses to the Song in the south in exchange for tea. And to make the treacherous mountain- dotted and river- choked southern Chinese geography impassable Song build an extensive network of mountain forts and riverine fleet of armored paddle boats. Situation eventually stabilized between the Song and the Jin around the key rivers and the gorges of the west. 

Art by Jack Huang. A Mongol archer in heavy armory. Northern Chinese front.

This new military proved so effective that it successfully repelled Jin invasions for a century until the end of Jin in 1234 AD and then another 4 decades against the Mongols until its absorption by Kublai, becoming one of the last great medieval states to fall to the great Khans.

By the Southern Song dynasty the already heavy Song crossbowmen would be closely guarded by some of the heaviest Song armored infantry armed with pikes, halberds and horse choppers. 

Art by Shuai Zhang. Process of a Song dynasty soldier donning his armor. Traditionally Chinese armor had long had its weight rested on the shoulders and held down by straps. A (visually distinctive) solution to mitigate the heavy burden is to use the belt (and its wraps) to fasten the armor around the wearer's waist. Thereby more evenly distributing some of the burden.

THIS ARTICLE IS PART OF A MUCH BIGGER UPCOMING OVERVIEW OF THE SONG DYNASTY MILITARY.

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Art by Shuai Zhang: Song dynasty infantryman in campaign gear. He wears a rough coat over his armor and he wears a thatched raincoat made of straws called Suōyī 蓑衣, and carries a ring- pommeled cleaver sword. He wears a large wicker hat over his head. The wicker hat were frequently worn by southern river's fishermen, and even in the 20th century were still widely worn by soldiers during the Long March in the Chinese Civil War.

A rain cape made from the leaves of the Chinese windmill palm. The cape would likely have been worn by rickshaw pullers, street cleaners or labourers, often together with a wide brimmed hat, to protect themselves from the rain. China, 1800-1860 CE