A Cruel Knife for Chu- A Warring States Story: 张仪欺楚

This short article is an excerpt of a much much longer whole dealing with the great coalitions and diverging Schools of alliances of the Warring States period. The article's length far exists my usual ones and contains about 3 times as much artworks. The link to the article could be found here. For details regarding Zhang's major rivals and the political context of his age in depth please refer to that longer article.

At the end of the 4th century BC, a grievous incident once happened in the mansion of an extremely high Chu minister. According to Sima Qian, the incident happened during a great celebratory feast. While celebrating with his guests the Chu host lost a priceless piece of jewelry from his person. Alarmed at this brazen theft, suspicion quickly turned to recriminations, and the ire of the lord soon fell on the only house guest who was not of noble lineage / of humble origins. Despite frenzied protestations, the Chu lord did not believe this bumpkin guest, and then ordered that he be bound and severely beaten by oar- like batons a hundred times to only an inch of his life. But despite this merciless scourging, this hayseed scholar: Zhang Yi, his body nearly broke and and foaming with his own gore, still spitefully asserted his innocence. 

At last, despite weathering through such extraordinary questioning: the jewel was not found on his person, and the Chu lord let the broken Zhang go home. According to Sima Qian in his Shiji- the bloodied Zhang Yi then went home to his despondent wife. Zhang Yi only made a simple request of her and asked her to check if his tongue was still in tact. When she answered yes, Zhang then swore to her that as long as his tongue skill exists, that's enough. Little did he know then, that he would one day become the Prime Minister of Qin, and his tongue would lay the foundation for Chu's next century of ruin and ultimate annihilation. 

Zhang Yi would become one of the main pillars of the School of Horizontal Alliances- one of the 2 great rival schools of diplomacy during the Warring States era. This was how Sima Qian described Zhang's first days, a losers in his larval days, scorned, overlooked, and wallowing in his own obscurity, but only able to rise to their titanic future heights with only the gift of his gifted tongue- which neither poverty nor misfortune could rob- and one day be dealing blows with entire nations. 

Of the 3 major diplomat and political philosophers of this era there is great amount of conflict in the sources regarding Su Qin, Zhang Yi, and the biography of one Gongsun Yan. Intrigues of the Warring States 战国策 and Sima Qian juxtaposed Su Qin and Zhang Yi as great rivals- a similar paring as that of Sun Bin and Pang Juan from the previous chapter. In this version Su and Zhang were described as former classmates and would one day wield rival kingdoms to play out their theories against the other. However since 1973, new archeological discoveries such as new chapters from Records of the Vertical and Horizontal Alliance Schools of Thought 战国纵横家书 uncovered from Han era Mawangdui tombs (bamboo scroll chapters) have put this traditional narrative to doubt. 1. Su Qin's biography mirrors that of another- earlier figure named Gongsun Yan who made himself the ministers of 5 states and was a major force of Vertical Alliance. 

In terms of eras: Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi were much more of contemporaries (and rivals) than Zhang Yi and Su Qin. 2. Zhang Yi's era and actions suggested he died earlier before Su Qin came to his prime and their main period of activities are separated by some 30 years. Thus: the conservative basis before we go forth is that: Su Qin and Zhang might not have much personal ploys against each other, it might better to think of "their" conflict as being one of their competing schools rather than a personal rivalry. A detailed examination of how rival philosophical schools personalized into Great larger than life founders could be found here. 

A STAR CROSSED RIVALRY IN QIN

Of the main proponents of the Vertical Alliance, chronologically Gongsun Yan was the first great shaper of this era. Bearing the moniker of Xishou 犀首, or "Rhinoceros Head." A capable military general as well as philosopher and diplomat, he cared greatly about balance of the kingdoms. Mencius recorded a famous scholar named Jingchun described Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi as 2 supremely talented heroes of this world, and 一怒而诸侯惧 "If they should rouse to anger (against the other)- all the lords will be afraid," but 安居而天下熄 "if they are at peace (with each other)- all under Heaven will know peace."

Gongsun Yan- a native of Wei and strong believer of the Vertical Alliance eventually rose to great prominence in Qin. Despite his great position within Qin he was concerned about the fate of his native Wei in the Central Plains. After Shang Yang's rise and Qin and Qi's emergence (at great expanse of Wei- and where Yan himself had served as an able general for his Qin host) Gongsun Yan still wanted a mutualist relationship between Qin (his kingdom of employment) and also Wei. A realist at heart, he viewed lopsided imbalance of power as a chasm for endless hellish war, and believed that the best way to guarantee peace between the states is balance of power and concert in unison. However his position at Qin was greatly threatened by a newcomer- Zhang Yi. 

If we go by a syncretic melding of Zhang's biography and includes his characterization from Record of the Grand Historian and Intrigues of the Warring States this was after Zhang was brutally scourged by the Chu high minister. 

However, although both Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi were natives born form Wei, they held radically opposing views. Zhang was a strong believer in the opposing Horizontal Alliance School and encouraged that Qin's King Huiwen should greatly strengthen Qin, and when it comes to a possible war expanding Qin reach beyond the Hangu Pass in its eastern extreme border and breach into the Central States (like Wei, Zhao, and Han) Qin should feel absolutely free to annex those territories at Wei, Han, and Zhao's expense. Alarmed, Gongsun Yan fiercely protested these advices and the two bitterly argued before King Huiwen. But because Zhang's position faned King Huiwen's innate expansionary ambitions, Gongsun Yan was sidelined, and then, after much of his power was stripped, eventually he retired from Qin- calculating that he was in a dead end inside Qin but his power and vision may be used elsewhere. 

Though scorned, Gongsu Yan would then embarked on a dramatic series of overtures that would mold many of the remaining small states together against Qin's expansionary ambitions. He returned to his native state of Wei where he was given a position as an official. However, strange footsteps followed in his wake. For only a few short years later in 321 BC, Zhang Yi showed up at Wei, apparently having been stripped of his position in Qin and sought employment. By this point Zhang was known far and wide as a capable scholar and minister and the Wei king soon elevated Zhang to a high position in the Wei court.

WEI AND THE CENTRAL PLAINS QUESTION

"Fool me once~" as the saying goes. The King in Wei at this moment should be quite familiar with us, for he was none other than King Hui. He was the sovereign who turned down Shang Yang's talent and had Shang Yang leaving for employment (and stardom in Qin,) he was also the sovereign who had Sun Bin (supposed descendant of Sun Tzu) in Wei's employment but had him crippled because of alleged treason charges and had him ran to Qi for sanctuary. He is the classic example of a middling hero who lived so long to see everything undone in his life time and his reputation and inheritance ruined. His long life of 81 years and reign of 50 years came at great expense to Wei's fortunes. 

When he assumed the Wei mantle Wei was still the proactive hegemon of the Central Plains, it actively sought out talents from across the realm and even when caught flatfooted in battle could resoundly match their foes in blows. However he was the ruler who presided Wei's dramatic fall from power. The 2 figures who originally were employed right under Wei's roof- Shang Yang and Sun Bin would become instrumental in Qin and Qi's respective rejuvenation + military prowess, little more than a decade after each had left Wei, Shang Yang and Sun Bin would come back at the head of 2 respective armies to both Wei's east (Qi) and west (Qin). 

In the first great Central Plain's war, despite being caught flatfooted, Wei repelled the invaders and stood its ground- with the help of legendary units such as the Wei Wuzu. However, a decade later, Shang Yang and Sun Bin again attacked Wei, this time Wei suffered 2 catastrophic defeats in both east and west, in the battle of Maling in 342 BC against Qi the entire Wei army was annihilated. Shang Yang then crushed the Wei army in the west and took the Hexi Corridor. After this double calamity- Wei became only a middling power. Wei eventually was made into a junior partner of Qi- in 334 BC with the Qi and Wei rulers (Duke and Marquis respectively) recognizing each other as kings. Soon after other states began to follow too. At this time Wei's main attention was directed westward against Qin. However, even with this stance of alarm, King Hui would host the THIRD major talent that would stomp on his kingdom right under his very roof. Zhang Yi did not came as a victim, he came as a mole.

When Zhang Yi was promoted to a high position in Wei, Gongsun Yan did not have any illusions that Zhang came as Qin's eyes and ears- and now limbs inside Wei too. However Gongsun Yan treated Zhang kindly. And an instance in Intrigues of the Warring States recorded that when Zhang was assigned to a diplomatic mission east to Qi, before his departure, Gongsun Yan hosted an enormous lavish feast  ceremony bidding good fortunes for Zhang's trip and his victorious return. 

Unfortunately for Zhang, when he arrived at Qi he understood why Gongsun Yan was being so publicly gracious. For Gongsun Yan himself came with major baggage. Qi hated Gongsun Yan and blamed him for a number of Wei wrongs against Qi in the past. With this very public fraternization with Zhang, when Zhang arrived in Qi by association Qi believed that Zhang was a friend and proxy of Gongsun Yan. Zhang thus received the unwarranted hate that was due for Gongsun Yan and became his sin eater in Qi. His mission was a failure and nothing was realized. With one elegant banquet, Gongsun Yan had made his enemy hate his enemy.

Tripolar World: Although there's definitely the personal satisfaction angle, Gongsun Yan's actions also had immense geopolitical reasonings. Simply put, Qin (black,) Qi (red,) and Chu (green,) were the 3 major poles of this age and Qin and Chu both had an army around 1,000,000 strong. Caught directly in the middle of the 3 great powers, Wei's fortunes would be met with disaster if Zhang (in reality here to do Qin's bidding) would succeed and form any kind of connections in Qi that he could one day be tapped for Qin's expansionary benefit. As someone entrusted to protect Wei, the worst nightmare would be if Qin, Qi and Chu began to align with each other to jointly partition the small Central Plains states. However with this jockeying of the mighty there lies a hidden pole, a 4th pole if Gongsun Yan could put to great use: the Central Plain states if they could unite as 1 pole (blue.)

Gongsun Yan was then able to stoke the burning ambition/ and insecurities of most of the Central Plains states and have him fell into each other's obits by ensuring that Wei would help them all to declare each other as kings. And when most of the small Central Plains states declared themselves as kings, the great powers on the frontiers (Qin, Chu, Qi) all became very threatened and thus tried to pick them apart via outright bullying and invasions. 

Through machination and clever anticipation of the pettiness of the Great Powers- Gongsun Yan then roped most of the Central Plains states into a mighty 5 kingdom coalition and had them unite to declare war on Qin. 

But this was also what Gongsun Yan had predicted, now all of the newly minted kings (and their kingdoms) in the Central Plains all began to band around each other for mutual protection. And because Qin and Chu and others forced them to become hawkish, Wei fired Zhang Yi and elevated Gongsun Yan to become Chancellor. He would rise to become the supreme commander of the 5 anti- Qin kingdoms and threw their might against Qin. Their campaign against the mighty Qin fortress at Hangu Pass to Qin's far east is recounted in detail here. And much longer full version here. Despite the ambitious campaign, Qin's crack army overpowered its 5 enemies in battle. Gongsun Yan's grand plan ended in failure, but he was still indisputably the first great mover of this age. Here was also where our sources for Gongsun Yan ended, and the next age belonged to his rival: Zhang Yi.

THE BLINDING OF CHU: QIN SEIZES THE EARLY GAME

Zhang repeatedly negotiated with Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi, thereby destroying their relationships with his horizontal alliances.

Music: The Southern Tribes

To Gongsun Yan's despair, and to the Horizontal school's adulation, it was in the wake of Qin's crushing of the coalition army that it reached a major critical mass. Having blunted the Central Plains coalition in the bottleneck at Hangu Pass and thoroughly overawed them all on the field, Qin was freed to turn it's covetous eyes to its other fronts. Only 1 year later, Qin turned it's attention southward and swiftly annex both the kingdom of Ba and Shu to its south, taking the entirety of the Sichuan Basin for themselves. To highlight the level of Qin tenacity and ingenuity- Qin constructed an extensive series of gallery roads highways (heavy wooden beams drilled into the tall cliffside with a bridge like planked gallery on top) along the jagged cloudy cliffsides of the Basin and allowed for the transportation of Qin legions and extensive supplies for deep campaigns. 

Middle Art by: Forky Xu

Rapid Qin expansion in 316. After overawing the great coalition at Hangu Pass and Xiuyu, Qin turned to all of its other troubled fronts. Using ploy and deep penetration Qin swiftly defeated the partially- Sinicized states of Ba and Shu to it's south. Then, turning its grudge filled eyes north, it looked to the Yiqu, which had just brutally raided the Qin north to aid the coalition's strike at Hangu. For Yiqu's transgression Qin launched a ruthless punitive expedition and took 25 cities.

In the blink of an eye, King Huiwen had nearly trippled the size of the Qin domains. What's more, the rich fertile fields and minerals greatly augmented Qin coffers, fueling its already bristling ambitions and thirst to avenge its past injuries. Decisively, Qin then threw it's full weight north and launched themselves against the barbarian Yiqu. Yiqu was grievously destroyed on the battlefield and its leadership desperately sued for peace and ceded twenty-five cities to Qin in 315 BC. In just 2 years after Hangu- Qin had reached a level that none could seriously contend with on an equal footing. Which~ for long visioned plotters like King Huiwen and Zhang Yi only meant that it will soon be inevitable that trouble, brewing, coalescing trouble would erupt again from the east. An even larger, more desperate, more committed coalition seeking Qin's death. 

To forestall this lopsided possibility, and to forestall the prospect of Qin facing itself alone against the rest, King Huiwen sent his ace card: Zhang Yi. Zhang Yi would be sent to the place of his bitter scourging, the itinerary which earned him 100 unjust baton blows: Chu. There he would do his utmost to turn Chu to Qin's favor. And despite all the odds against him, he would deliver a hell of a miracle to the house of Ying. 

UNRAVELLING THE QI CHU ALLIANCE 

Despite Zhang Yi's brutal scourging (at least according to Intrigues of the Warring States and Sima Qian) when Zhang arrived in Chu he was personally welcomed by none other than the Chu king himself. He treated Zhang with perfect cordiality and lavishly hosted Zhang in all manners (he was also not in power during the Zhang's previous itinerary and scourging.)

Chu at this time was led by the ambitious King Huai (to avoid confusion with King Huiwen of Qin we shall refer to him mostly as the King of Chu or the Chu King,) When the anti- Qin alliance was consecrated, Chu was persuaded into the fray and was the wild card that could have pivoted the conflict. What's more, being the greatest (without Qi in that alliance) it was also made it's leader. However Qin detected a distinct strain of vacillation on the part of Chu. 

Inter Horizontal Rivalry: Chu both vacillated with fully supporting the alliance, and, after the alliance was resoundly defeated on the battlefield (with most of the 3 Jins getting the lopsided brunt of the casualty) quickly abandoned the Central Plains states. In 314 BC, civil war broke out in Yan. King Xuan of Qi- one of the most dynamic sovereigns in the east attacked Yan and murdered the King of Yan. Seeing opportunity, this was why Chu immediately allied with Qi. In a sense, Chu was playing its own game of Horizontal Alliances- but this extremely formidable South/ East axis was rigged against Qin in the west. 

But it's not all indecision on Chu's part, it was during these decades Chu turned its full might to the east in its assaults against the kingdom of Yue (yellow arrow) and this war of annexation was a key point of interest for Chu expansion in this era. It also ensured that despite now sharing a vast shared border with Qin it cannot afford to also antagonize Qin. It would be in Qin's vital interest to keep Chu preoccupied in the east. And this was precisely why Zhang Yi was chosen.

Despite his host's enormous generosity, the clever Zhang quickly noticed several foibles in his gracious host. The Chu king was very weak for beautiful women and was easily besotted with beautiful dancing girls and concubines (since ancient times there is also a troupe of the debauched Chu monarchs coveting great beauties- which results in great disorders.) The 2nd Chu king was known to have brazenly committed a shocking taboo to a small nearby state during a state visit, when he was struck by the beauty of his gracious host lord's wife he immediately annexed his host's state and took both her and the usurped state for himself. 

Another instance happened in the Spring and Autumn era where the Chu king was enamored with a beautiful Qin princess meant for his crown prince. Instead, the Chu king- despite furious protest of his learned minister, took her for himself. It caused a realm-wide scandal, then, fearing from his robbed son and the learned minister (who was the crown prince's tutor,) he was encouraged by an opportunistic courtier to murder them both. He then tried to arrest the crown prince (prompting him to take flight) and slaughtered the learned minister's family. That slain minister's son was none other than the dynamic Wu Zixu, and would one day become the Chancellor of Wu and wreck savage revenge on Chu- sacking its capital and desecrating the tomb of the very fatuous Chu king who slew his family. Luckily for Zhang Yi's real plans, Qin historically was well known for its beautiful women.

Music: Plan of Attack

THE PLOY OF THE FATEFUL TONGUE 

Zhang Yi immediately began working to undermine the existing alliance between Chu and Qi with the goal of turning Chu to Qin's side. His first audiences with the Chu king began confidently. Zhang played up on the shared historical friendship between the 2 states. In centuries past, Qin and Chu had often allied with each other creating a south/ west bloc. Often if either was threated by the then hegemon of Jin, both would join together to check Jin overreach. Qin also rescued Chu during its darkest hour. Though in the recent generations past, there had been occasional blows between the 2 states- which resulted in the loss of some Chu cities to the west. Zhang Yi told the Chu king that Qin had intention to remedy this past wrong. Piqued, the Chu king continued his discourse with Zhang. 

Through Zhang Yi, Qin then presented the Chu king with dozens of beautiful women. The Chu king was greatly smitten by this and became more amenable to Qin diplomacy. At last, Zhang Yi presented something that would be impossible for King Huai to refuse. In 312 BC Zhang promised that that if Huai could end his alliance with Qi, Qin would then gave 600 li of land that Qin had previously captured from Chu back. Faced with such an irresistible gambit, what's more without the need for a single drop of bloodshed- the excited Chu king immediately agreed. 

THE QI CHU ALLIANCE TORN TO PIECES

However his official Chen Zhen's suspected treachery and furiously protested this. Chu broke off the alliance dramatically, with Huai sending a brave who went up to the front of the Qi king in court and insulted him personally to his face. Disgusted, Qi broke off the alliance and Chu then requested that Zhang deliver what he promised. Zhang then agreed to seal the deal with a Chu emissary when they return to Qin. 

However inside Qin something strange happened. When the 2 were getting off from their carriages, Zhang collapsed from his end of his carriage and began to hiss and yelp bitterly. When the worried emissary rushed over to see what had happened, Zhang explained that the leap off the carriage had broke his knees. Because of this, the signing ceremony was shuttered. Weeks, then months would drag by and the Chu emissary became very impatient. When he beseeched the situation in an audience to King Huiwen of Qin he simply responded that he did not know the particular details of the 2 side's arrangement in the document, because the entire project was Zhang Yi's and only he himself knew it to the last detail the Qin king deferred it back to Zhang. 

A CRUEL KNIFE FOR CHU

In reality, neither Zhang Yi nor King Huiwen had any intention of honoring this agreement, and Zhang's "wound" was but a delaying ploy served to leave Chu in the dark and the now vexed kingdom isolated. 

When at last, after several months Zhang Yi finally met with the emissary, to the horror of the emissary Zhang revealed that instead of giving Chu 600 li along the boarders, instead, Zhang Yi would offer only 6 (six) li from his own personal fief to Chu. Predicably, the emissary was outraged and furiously raced back to Chu, and provoked the full wrath from king Huai. Chu then mustered its military and raced to attack Qin in the borderlands. However this too, was what Qin had expected. 

When the Chu sledge hammer raced to the western passes Qin army was already lying in wait and well prepared for their host- having already been drilling for months for this battle. The result was a crushing calamity for Chu. The Chu army was resoundly defeated in two separate massive battles. At Danyang Chu suffering over 80,000 losses beheaded (and the capture of some 70 Chu generals) but King Huai was still furious and would not acknowledge his defeat, he promptly sent another royal army and it too was crushed at Lantian. The Qin army had now breached into the Chu heartlands, no Chu army now stands between them.

The twin battles of Danyang and Lantian was a catastrophic loss for Chu. Having been cruelly deceived and intentionally provoked into rash anger, the Chu army was defeated twice and the ensuing losses resulted in the loss of the Chu heartland- ironically now it was Chu which MUST GIVE 600 Li of its own ancestral heartland- the basin where Chu was first consecrated 8 centuries ago to Qin to sue for peace. 

Though in prestige it was an immense loss of face, in territory and economic output a critical one, perhaps most decisively Chu lost the vital pivotal initiative that would have guaranteed its long term safety and sovereignty. Because of Zhang Yi, Chu lost the critical initiative in the end game of this murderous age, and it would never regain these lands from which it was born. 

For Zhang Yi, if we go by the version characterized by Intrigue of the Warring States, he had exacted his cruel revenge on Chu in the hundreds folds. For the next century, Chu would be constantly at the receiving end of brutal Qin blows, and the death of Chu populace would soar in the millions- all the way until the vanquishing of Chu as a state. With his tongue alone, he had talked Chu into severing its own limbs and destroyed its future. Such was the man whose own persuasion destroyed Qin's mightiest (and future mightiest) foe in this most critical hour. 

A specter, but now more likely than ever before.

It is here we shall end our coverage of Zhang Yi. More fanciful records had it that King Huai was willing to sign the humiliation defeat with the condition that the treacherous Zhang Yi be delivered to him to exchange for the 600 li given to Qin. Apparently the Qin King Huiwen agreed (even encouraged by Zhang Yi himself to take this deal) and when Zhang Submitted himself to the Chu King he did not kill the minister, whom he still regarded as a peerless talent and a source for great stately advices. Zhang was then eventually cleverly leverage his way out of his capture by convincing the jealous Chu queen to send him away (by vaguely tangle the prospect of Qin bringing pretty girls that will undermine her position) thus she persuaded her fatuous husband to relent Zhang and Zhang was able to leave.  

Music: A Time for Sons (A World Betrayed)

Beneath the King of the Hill, skulls.

However most versions agreed that the Qin king Huiwen predeceased Zhang and with the death of his life long benefactor Zhang fell out of favor in the Qin court. The newly ascended Qin king was distrustful of his court bloc and Zhang soon retired back to his native state of Wei and died there. Such was the man who dominated the middle Warring States period for 20 years and assured Qin's foothold in the end game. Though scorned, Zhang Yi (like his predecessor Shang Yang) had given Qin the most precious things of all: freedom and life.