Mulan. Background: 花木兰

A more historically authentic version of Mulan in Northern Wei (386–535) armor. Her armor's design is based on that of the armors depicted on heavily armored Northern dynasty tomb guardians. Many such figures wore such distinctive helmets with an upswept peak at the front. Nearly all wore distinctive torso armors with mirror like circular chest plates. Unfortunately no intact armors of such soldiers have been recovered and their various figurines showed different constructions. Many Northern dynasty horsemen also wore a half slung riding coat. 

Nomadic Influences: a northern dynasty noblewoman. She wears a distinctive buyao 步摇 ("step shaker" lit. step sway ) headdress. Noble Xianbei women wore ornate gold or gilt bronze jewels in the shape of trees or antlers that formed trees on their head. Sometimes gilded leaves are crafted separately and would be affixed on the ornate curved branches. They would shake whenever the women moved~ hence the name of step shaker. Both the reindeer sound and deer are seen as auspicious by steppe cultures. Although Mulan herself would not have been one of the aristocratic women but more likely a conscript, nonetheless women wielded substantial influence in Northern Wei politics and this serves as a slice of the cultural milieu.

THE REAL MULAN

In this brief article we will look at the backdrop of the famous "Ballad of Mulan" and the era in which the legendary heroine supposedly lived in. We will also examine the Norther Wei dynasty and point to several instances where the distinctive culture of the northern dynasties are referred in Mulan's stanzas.

"WEI"

Middle: Northern Wei murals. Bottom: A Northern Wei cavalryman in red rider's cape. He is flanked by a lacquered screen depicting Northern Wei royal lives and court politics. 

Before we began I think its important to clarify the purpose of this article. This article is neither Pro- nor Anti- Disney's Mulan. It is entirely agnostic to it. Aside from making use of the upsurge of popularity generated by Disney's movie release, this article will have little to do with the movie, Disney's own version of the story, nor the politics associated with it what so ever. In fact, with the release of the movie it came to my attention that there is a great need for a Mulan that is devoid of modern agendas and overlapping politics: a context for its own sake. 

Chanfron and barding (horse armor) of a northern Chinese cataphract, note the tall and ostentatious plume Jisheng 寄生, lit. "parasite" on the horse's hip. The Xianbei elites who ruled northern China frequently deployed cataphracts in their battles. 

THE STORY OF MULAN

The Ballad of Mulan is the oldest known version of Mulan’s story. Most likely composed during the time of Northern Wei.

Music: Northern Grasslands

The sound of one sigh after another, as Mulan weaves at the doorway. 

No sound of the loom and shuttle, Only that of the girl lamenting.

Ask her of whom she thinks, Ask her for whom she longs.

"There is no one I think of, There is no one I long for.

Last night I saw the army notice, the Khan is calling a great draft –

A dozen volumes of battle rolls, Each one with my father's name.

My father has no grown-up son, And I have no elder brother.

I'm willing to buy a horse and saddle, To go to battle in my father's place."

For many of you, most of it already sounded very familiar. The ballad began with a distracted Mulan as she ponders the conscription summons with her fathers' name listed. She then decide to enlist in his stead to join the army. But did you notice one of the key words used? The King of her kingdom is not a traditionally styled Emperor huangdi 皇帝, or simply di 帝 but rather a kè hán 可汗 "Khan." This is because the ruler of her kingdom was not ruled by an ethnic Han dynasty, but that of a northern nomadic people from the northern steppes. 

Many scholars attribute the origin of the Ballad of Mulan to one of the northern Chinese dynasties, with that of Northern Wei being one of the most likely contenders. Many are probably familiar with the saying "Enemy at the Gates," but how is it that a Khan is conscripting the masses of Chinese citizenry to defend northern China (and its Great Walls) presumably against another invading Khan of a another invading nomadic people?

ENEMY AT THE GATES: THE NORTHERN DYNASTIES

Two cloaked Xianbei riders. The Xianbei were one of the dominant tribes from the

steppes. They, together with many other tribes spilled into northern China in the

chaotic period known as the War of the Eight Princes. They formed many small

kingdoms, and one of them became the Northern Wei.

Only a century before when Mulan's story probably took place, the ancestors of the founders of Northern Wei invaded into northern China with dozens of other tribes. At the time, northern China was in an anarchic state of fratricidal wars called the War of the Eight Princes. Taking advantage of the intrigue and cycles of civil wars in northern China, the various nomadic tribes north of China (tens of thousands were employed as mercenaries by the various Chinese Princes and royal uncles) led the whole of their people and spilled into the Central Plains. 

Jin empire in 316 AD. By that time, northern China was blanketed with a series of small competing kingdoms each controlled by a northern horde at the top of the social strata, initiating a period of total war called the Sixteen Kingdoms whereby all fought for supremacy to become the sole power to control northern China.

Music: Eight Princes

Soon, all of northern China erupted into total war. The various nomadic tribes that had just spilled into China fought each other for supremacy as they claimed the various northern Chinese provinces as their domains and kingdoms. The former native Chinese court- the Jin, was expelled to the south while in the north, a series of Sixteen Kingdoms- led by nomadic tribes rose and fell in rapid succession in over 130 years of war. This period bears some resemblance of the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the age of invasions it suffered at the hands of various migrant Germanic peoples who then established their own petty kingdoms in western and central Europe. The most capable of them eventually unified the north and became the Kingdom of Northern Wei. 

ENEMY MAN THE GATES

The empire reached its territorial zenith around the reigns of Emperor Taiwu and Emperor Wengcheng in 450-460s. Taizu unified the north and ended the chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms period and established Northern Wei hegemony over China's north. However, A unified N. Wei still faced incursions from the steppes north of them. The once enemies, once "Barbarians" from beyond the walls were now the guardians along the Great Walls.

The ethnic Xianbei- led Touba clan that ruled Northern Wei were capable warriors and rulers (they merely called themselves "Wei" but to distinguish their state from the other Chinese dynasties that's called Wei~ in Warring States and the one ruled by the Cao clan it was called Northern Wei by historians.) It should be mentioned that although ethnically many nomadic people ruled as the ruling clans of northern China, they and their tribes were still a minority of ruling elite presiding over a majority of native Han subjects. In order to consolidate their hold over much of northern China. the Touba became aggressive adopters of Han customs and institutions. 

Warrior: Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, an aggressive expansionist who doubled the size 

of N.Wei in conquest, ending the chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms period. During his wars 

of consolidation in the north, the powerful Rouran Khaganate from the steppes repeatedly 

invaded his kingdom. It was likely during this period, that Taiwu- the ethnic "Khan"

referred to in the "Ballad of Mulan" conscripted the realm to rally against the invaders

Reconstructed mural of a Northern Wei military procession, displayed at the Datong Museum in Shanxi China. The procession depicted Northern Wei's military strength at its height. Note the red riding cloaks worn by the honored guards around the imperial carriage.

With such reforms, the Touba were able to be both powerful warriors in their inter- tribal wars of unification against the other steppe- led northern Chinese kingdoms, while at the same time ruled much of those territories with an efficient tiered tax system and bureaucracy. To promote inter ethnic harmony, they promoted Buddhism as a cultural unifier and constructed many Buddhist monuments and statues across northern China. 

Because mortals are equalized in the Dharmic wheel, the Touba hoped that the north would became one unified people. What's more, they now have partaken the responsibility of defending all their subjects in the north, of all ethnicities. However, troubles were brewing on the kingdom's northern frontiers, and soon, there would be desperate musters against the coming invaders. 

Music: Through the City Gates

She buys a fine steed at the east market;

A saddle and blanket at the west market;

A bridle at the south market;

And a long whip at the north market.

She takes leave of her parents at dawn,

To camp beside the Yellow River at dusk.

No sound of her parents hailing their girl,

Just the rumbling waters of the Yellow River.

TROUBLES FROM THE NORTH

The Rouran Khaganate was one of the bitterest foes to Northern Wei, fearing the growing strength of Northern Wei (Northern Wei once warred with them when it was but one of the smaller powers,) the Rouran repeatedly plundered the north in over a century of continual invasions. In this ceaseless struggle, many families were drafted to protect against the northern invaders.

She leaves the Yellow River at dawn,

To reach the Black Mountains by dusk.

No sound of her parents hailing their girl,

Just the cries of barbarian cavalry in the Yan hills.

TRUMP CARD OF THE NORTHERN ARMIES: CATAPHRACTS

There has been much debates in regards to the ethnic origins of Mulan, with some pointing out that because she served in a kingdom ruled by a Khan and ethnically Xianbei clan that she is in fact not Han, while other argued that because of her Sinocized Chinese name and the fact that she was drafted from the lowly ranks of the native citizenry that she's in fact an ethnic Han heroine. 

Most likely her ballad is a composite of various people's stories, or the tangential retelling of a figure who is distorted beyond recognition. But if indeed a female warrior like her did exist during the Northern dynasties, it's possible she's either Han, a Xianbei, or even of mixed heritage. Because of her explicitly stated lowly ranks in reference to her conscription, more than likely that she is either a Han native or of mixed heritage. 

Music: The Greatest Change

Ten thousand miles she rode in war,

Crossing passes and mountains as if on a wing.

On the northern air comes the sentry's gong,

Cold light shines on her coat of steel.

Chanfron and barding (horse armor) of a 4th-7th century Chinese cataphract, 

note the ostentatious plume Jisheng 寄生, lit. "parasite" on the horse's hip. 

The Xianbei were one of the first major groups of steppe peoples in the east that deployed heavily armored horses in battle. It was during the chaotic Jin- and Sixteen Kingdoms period that cataphracts were widely adopted across China (mostly in the north- however Eastern Jin, the remnant of the Jin empire in southern China still fielded their own catahphracts as well. Armored horse chanfron were recovered from Northern Yan (one of the 16 Kingdoms) tombs and many northern kingdom's tombs featured murals depicting these heavily armored horses. These would have been impressive soldiers, since not only are they encased entirely in armor but many of their rides also featured tall swaying plumes attached to the back of the horse (or the saddle) called Jisheng 寄生.

Armor design is based on that of the armors depicted on heavily armored Northern dynasty tomb guardians. Many such figures wore such distinctive helmets with an upswept peak at the front. Nearly all wore distinctive torso armors with mirror like circular chest plates. Unfortunately no intact armors of such soldiers have been recovered and their various figurines showed different constructions including both opened collars or a unified shoulder armor piece that is affixed to the wearer through a choke. The arrangement of the chest plates are also different, some are embedded within various mesh of leather covers while others have the metal plates entirely bulged out.

Mulan in alternative scale helmet with fur band helmet warmers. Much of the cavalry helmets recovered from northern kingdoms had riders wearing these conical scale helmets with a layer of reinforced scales serving as cover for the ears and back of the head. 

Helmet and horse armor of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (Northern)

The general slain after a hundred battles,

The warriors return after ten years.

In the expanded version of the Ballad, the "Song of Mulan" by the Tang Dynasty poet Wei Yuanfu (c. 750 AD) he added more detail to Mulan's exploits and battles, including stating that she fought for 12 years and was promoted 12 times, she help trapping the enemy in an ambush and contributed to the ending of the war. In this version more detail was given to her emotional state and her gender role.

~

They return to see the Son of Heaven,

Who sits in the Hall of Brilliance.

The rolls of merit spin a dozen times,

Rewards in the hundreds and thousands.

The Khan asks her what she desires,

"I've no need for the post of a gentleman official,

I ask for the swiftest horse,

To carry me back to my hometown."

A closeup of the the distinctive 寄生 "Jisheng" (Lit. "Parasite")- Large decorative plumes attached to the back of the horse armor. They appeared during the late Jin- Sixteen Kingdoms period preceding the Northern and Southern dynasties and were commonly seen in the first half of the 6th century.

Her parents hearing their girl returns,

Out to the suburbs to welcome her back.

Elder sister hearing her sister returns,

Adjusts her rouge by the doorway.

Little brother hearing his sister returns,

Sharpens his knife for pigs and lamb.

Music: Services and Sacrifice 

"I open my east chamber door,

And sit on my west chamber bed.

I take off my battle cloak,

And put on my old-time clothes.

I adjust my wispy hair at the window sill,

And apply my bisque makeup by the mirror.

I step out to see my comrades-in-arms,

They are all surprised and astounded:

'We travelled twelve years together,

Yet didn't realise Mulan was a lady!'"

The male rabbit bounds here and there,

Whilst the female rabbit has narrow eyes.

But when the two rabbits run side by side,

How can you tell the female from the male?

BRIEF OVERVIEW: KINGDOM OF NORTHER WEI

Music: The Heart Sutra

The Kingdom of Northern Wei (simply Wei in contemporary sources) began in humble origin. Once they were merely one of the many dozens of minor steppe- vassal kingdoms serving at the behalf of the Jin dynasty: an outer softer shell of allies and auxiliaries ringing the Great Wall. Following the internal strife within the Jin, the Touba clan of Xianbei tribesmen swept into northern China and made themselves the master of it. But, with taking over of all of northern China, comes the new responsibility of protecting all of northern China against external invaders.

Aside from its Buddha monuments, another key landmark to remember the Northern Wei by is actually the Han dynasty- constructed Great Wall.  Despite the steppe origins of this kingdom, much of its northern defense and governmental administration revolves around the Great Wall itself.

The clever Touba clan that ruled the kingdom proved themselves to be both highly educated administrators as well as capable warlords- extending their domain as far as the Tarim Basin in the west, to the banks of the Yangtze in the south, and deep into the steppes in the north. At the center of their imperial domains they transformed a fortress on the foothills of the Great Wall into the Wei capital~ Datong. The fact that this great empire's center was bisected by a massive physical barrier almost exemplified the dual- identity of the Northern Wei kingdom: that of a Chinese and Han south nestled south of the Great Wall and a wild and untamed north beyond the walls. 

The rulers of Northern Wei thus governed the steppe north of the Great Walls as one of the Khans, while for the lands south of the Great Wall governed in a style of capable Sinicized emperors. As previously mentioned, they were astute organizers. Their innovative land reforms portioned out northern farmlands to be able to far farmed by all families- their taxation system was both fair and highly effective for its time. Their introduction of Buddhism also fostered a new unified consciousness among its many diverse subjects. With these reforms it was not surprising that they grinded down most of their enemies in war and became the sole power in the north. However, latent ethnic tensions and a uniquely N Wei series of succession crises will eventually leads to the weakening of the kingdom. Both will be examined next. 

Reconstructed model of Datong during Northern Wei: originally merely a fort close to the foothills of the Han- Jin dynasty Great Walls, the Touba chose Datong as the site of their new capital. Due to its extreme proximity to the Great Wall, Datong served as a point for projecting into steppe affairs. The possession of the vast stretches of Han Great Walls allowed Northern Wei to repel many invaders from the north on behalf of the northern populace. 

Eastern Roman gold coin found in the tomb of Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei 

minted during the reign of Anastasius I. During the height of N. Wei's power

they reconnected with the Silk Road from the Tarim Basin.

WOMEN OF NORTHERN WEI

Unlike most of the native ethnic Han dynasties, most of the Northern Chinese- steppe ruled dynasties conferred high level of autonomy and power to women. Women of the northern dynasties frequently participated in hunts on horseback and they enjoyed a greater degree of freedom compared to their southern neighbors. This is especially true for the women of Northern Wei who frequently participated in the political arena.

NOTORIOUS EMPRESSES

Across the spectrum of Chinese history we would find a noticeable amount of powerful empresses and noble women in the annals of Northern Wei history. Despite this, most of these powerful figures (in contrast to the heroic Mulan) were saddled with very unsavory, and notorious legacies. So why does Northern Wei possess these domineering and infamous female figures? Ironically one of the curious reasons that Northern Wei boasted so many politically powerful women was because nearly all of them were FORCED into that role. For there was an ancestral tradition among the Touba empresses that whenever a new Crown Prince is created, his mother must be put to death (or commit suicide.)

Although the tradition in itself is notorious in character, modern scholars still are puzzled as to the origins of it. Some have claimed that this tradition stemmed from steppe- Xianbei traditions, or at least specific to the Touba clan. While other refutes this claim by pointing out that this tradition may be in fact Han inspired: in emulation of Emperor Wu of Han's order of forced suicide on his favorite empress. Because of these mandates, many Northern Wei concubine were recorded to pray for daughters, or pray that their sons would not become the crown prince.

As a result of this intense tradition, Northern Wei had a number of powerful dowager empresses who ruled the realm as a regent after their husband's death, then ruled with a lover- while denying their own son's ascension, even sometimes killing them (other times only letting them take the reins until after the dowager empress die of natural causes.) It is in this context that we understand why many historians in hindsight would rebuke these intervening empresses' behaviors. Memorable Northern Wei regent- empresses were remembered as usurpers, adulteresses, harridans and murderesses (of their own sons.) But then again, if one were placed in their circumstances, one would likely do little else that's different 

It should still be noted that for those women who did managed to rule as regent Dowager Empresses, they were still mostly capable stateswomen who ably led the state through many changing circumstances. The tradition of the slaying of Crown Empresses was finally abolished by the forceful Empress Dowager Hu- who reigned as one of the powerful regents. Hu- and another Empress Dowager Feng were two of the noticeable Regent empresses. Hu's career was especially remarkable in that she reigned twice as regent. After having being ousted once and put under a house arrest, she staged a comeback and again restored herself as the regent. Unfortunately for both her and her dynasty, her reign ended with a civil war that split the dynasty into two halves. 

INTRIGUES-  SPLITTING OF THE NORTHERN WEI 

THE LONG CHARADE OF THE TWO "WEI" IN THE NORTH

Intrigue eventually unraveled Northern Wei. On an ethnic level, the Touba imperial clan actively embraced Han customs and Han traditions, however, this cultural conversion of "Going native" angered many of the old guards within the Xianbei elites (especially those elements north of the Great Wall)- in time, many rebellions' erupted during the final, intrigue filled days presided by Empress Dowager Hu, and during this time powerful N. Wei generals rebelled and took the fight directly to the imperial clan itself.

In 534: Calamity struck the Wei regime when the Xianbei general Yuwen Tai killed the Northern Wei emperor Yuan Xiu, he installed a puppet on the throne while in reality he was the real ruler behind the puppet emperor. In the easter part of the kingdom, another ambitious local governor would similarly create a puppet emperor from the N line to serve his own ambition. In 534 Gao Huan, a powerful magnate in the eastern part of the kingdom also enthroned his own puppet N. Wei emperor and ruled through him. Thus, there were two Weis. 

Thus there were two. 2 Puppet masters took two puppets from Northern Wei's royal family and ruled through them in what would be known as the Western Wei and Eastern Wei. When- in time, both became tired of ruling through their respective puppet emperors, they allowed the illusion of "Wei" rule finally drop. Each deposed their own Wei puppet Emperors and founded their own dynasties, the N. Zhou in the west and N. Qi in the east.

Though both of the Wei remnants still called themelves "Wei" they were both controlled by extremely ambitious puppet masters. After nearly 20 years of this long charade. The decendants of both of the puppet masters eventually deposed their respective puppets and created the new dynasties of N. Zhou (NW) and N. Qi (NE) 

Western Wei 西魏 (535-556)  ➢  BECAME ➢ Northern Zhou 北周 (557-581)

Eastern Wei 東魏 (534-550)  ➢ BECAME  ➢ Northern Qi 北齐 (550-577)

Both would retain their steppe heritage and traditions and tried to fight off the emerging Gokturk Khagnate that displaced the Rourans in China's north.

The fall of the charades: When the masks of the charade were dropped, 

the newly declared Northern Zhou and Northern Qi immediately

pounced against each other with their full strength.

DISTANT HORIZONS, CHINA REUNIFIED

Eventually, both the Northern Zhou (successor to Western Wei) and Northern Qi (successor to Eastern Wei) would be subjugated by the powerful Sui dynasty. Yang Jian- the future Emperor Wen of Sui was one of the most powerful nobles in the court of Northern Zhou, when the dynasty fell into the hand of a weak ruler, Yang Jian usurped the throne and took over the kingdom. There after he conquered the south and eliminated the last remnants of the southern kingdom of Chen, uniting the realm for the 1st time since the chaos brought by the War of the Eight Princes and nearly 3 centuries of disunity. Though the Sui dynasty itself was brief, it laid for the coming golden age of the Tang dynasty.

Stylized art of the Nine Colored Deer by Snow Fish: the art 

imitates the style of Northern Zhou tomb mural art. 

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