The Kingdom of Nanzhao, Implacable Conquerors 南诏

Art by Shuai Zhang

The kingdom of Nanzhao that rose during 8th century in Yunnan would not only be an unexpected military powerhouse but also become one of the most dominant powers in all of South East Asia. Nanzhao was made up of many ethnic and linguistic groups. Some historians believe that the majority of the population were of the Bai people, but that the elite spoke a variant of Nuosu (also called Yi), a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. What was certain was that, prior to its official founding, each of the 6 dominant tribes of the region had its own chieftain- kings, known as a "Zhao." They would initially inhabit in the western portion of Yunnan, where local tribal authorities have the strongest hold, while northeastern Yunnan was ruled by Chinese prefects and under direct control of Chinese dynasties.

SIX CHIEFTAINS, SIX KINGS

At the end of the 6th century the largest tribes of the region around Lake Erhai in northern Yunnan were six tribes whose chieftains were called the six Zhaos, or "six kings" ("Zhao"- in Chinese means "edict" or "degree", denotes a non-Han ruler conferred to rule by the imperial regime.) The chieftains came under Tibetan occupation from 680 AD, and after they were driven out recognized the local chieftains' powers in 703. During the 8th century, Tang China and the Tibetan Empire were two rival superpowers in the political landscape of East Asia. In time, the local chieftans sought Chinese support as a patron to unite the six tribes under one banner.

 Zhao "詔" ~ meaning "decree" or "imperial proclaimation" could be roughly translated as non-Chinese chieftans or Kings who served as Chinese vassals while they simultaneously ruled as kings in their local domains. Above: Crown of a native Yunnan chieftain dating from the Ming dynasty. Even when the region was ruled by Chinese regimes, historically Yunnan had always preserved its distinctive culture. Because of their services to the imperial court, many of the local chieftains and priestly class was able to preserve their culture. During the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, the Tusi 土司; often translated "headmen" or "chieftains", served the imperial dynasties as vassals while they simultaneously ruled as kings in their local domains. 

In the year 737 AD, with the support of the Tang, a chieftain of the southern tribe called Piluoge (皮罗阁) united the six zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao (Mandarin, "Southern Zhao"). The kingdom's capital was established in 738 a few miles south of Dali. Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack, and it was in the midst of rich farmland. All the paths that converged towards it were easily defensible, and a few defenders could easily hold off much larger enemies. With this strategic citing, the kingdom became nearly impervious to foreign invasions. The court of Nanzhao would be greatly modeled after Tang bureaucracy.

DESTROYERS

Red lacquered leather lamellar armor of ancient construction. During the Kingdom of Nanzhao and Dali many of the warriors wore such armors into battle. They would have been a colorful contrast set against the blue- green backdrop of Yunnan's mountains and forests.

What Nanzhao did in the next century would astound the world, and proved that the small state would not only punch way above its size but also fight both Tang China and the Tibetan Empire- two of East Asia's great powers of the 8th centuries at their absolute heights. In 750, Nanzhao fought against the Tang Dynasty- according to their accounts the Tang prefect of Yunnan attempted to rob Nanzhao envoys. Geluofeng, the successor of Piluoge promptly invaded Tang Yunnan, killing the prefect and seized nearby Tang territory. In 750 therefore Geluofeng attacked Yaozhou and killed the governor. He declared his tributary relation to the Tang empire as ended and offered the king of Tubo 吐蕃 (Tibet) his alliance. Two years later he was indeed bestowed the Tibetan title of tsanpo chung 赞普钟 "royal brother", was given an official seal of the Tibetan empire

In retaliation, the Tang governor of Jiannan (modern Sichuan), Xianyu Zhongtong, marched against Nanzhao with an army of 80,000 soldiers in 751, but this army was soundly defeated at Xiaguan- the Xia mountain pass. (It was in the same year that the Tang suffered another serious defeat at the hands of the Abbasid Arabs at the Battle of Talas in Central Asia; which weakened the dynasty.) But the Tang did not let up, at the height of Xuanzong of Tang's rule the Tang realm boasted an army of two million, thus even after the defeats another invasion was launched in 754, this time from the north, which numbered over 100,000 soldiers.

But again, geographic factors rendered the Nanzhao capital impregnable, and the Tang invasion was again destroyed in 754. After this, the Tang was unable to send another expedition due to the outbreak of Anshi Rebellion in the following year. Bolstered by these successes, Nanzhao entered into an alliance with the rival of the Tang, the Tibetan Empire. With both fronts secured, Nanzhao expanded rapidly, the next century of the kingdom would be marked by a series of extremely aggressive invasions and deep raids into the nearby kingdoms.

TRIUMPH AGAINST ALL

Red lacquered leather lamlellar armor of a Yunnan warrior. 

During the rest of the 8th century Nanzhao would become an persistent thorn at the Tang's side. Because of their impregnable heartland in the Yunnan mountains, ever perched to strike down toward all directions yet could easily slip back to safety if pursued, Nanzhao continued its aggressive wars. But with the Tang drastically weakened in the 8th century and thus no longer being a threat, Nanzhao then turned against the Tibetan Empire- itself being at the absolute height of its power.

The Tibetan empire dealt a series of blows to the Tang as the empire weakened and rapidly became the greatest power of East Asia, at its height expanding from the Tarim Basin and Hexi Corridor in the northwest to Manipur and Burma in the east, its armies were vast, its authority supreme. And by 794 the alliance between Nanzhao and Tibetan Empire broke apart. Immediately, an alliance was concluded between Nanzhao and the Tang. In 801 an alliance of Nanzhao and Tang forces defeated a massive contingent of Tibetan and Abbasid slave soldiers. Again, the small state had given a bloody nose to an empire much larger than it in nearly all metrics. With these bold victories, Nanzhao went on to become an imperialist power.

DESTROYERS, CONQUERORS

What followed Nanzhao's "proving" was a litany of extremely aggressive wars of expansion. By the 9th century Nanzhao had become an imperialistic state. Bolstered by their successes against the Tang and Tibet, Nanzhao expanded rapidly into Burma, conquering and massacring the Pyu city-states in the 820s, enslaving thousands of inhabitants and returning with vast loots. In 829, they attacked Chengdu, the seat of Tang power in the nearby Sichuan province, tens of thousands of artisans and scholars were enslaved and brought back to the Nanzhao capital of Dali. It was a great prize, as it potentially enabled Nanzhao to lay claim to the whole of Sichuan province, however they withdrew the following year.

In the 830s, they conquered several neighboring kingdoms to the south inhabited by the Tai and Miao (Hmong) people, subjugating them. Have dong so, Nanzhao then waged war deep into Burma in 832, finally eradicating the Burmese Pyu city-states in 832.

Aggressive expansions. After having bested both the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan empire in the 8th century, by the 9th century the small kingdom of Nanzhao embarked on an extremely aggressive series of rapid expansions. For nearly 7 decades it laid waste and subjugated many nearby smaller states and repeatedly attacked the weak points of the Tang frontiers.

After devastating Burma and made itself the undisputed power of the region, Nanzhao then turned fully against the Tang weak points in the east, most of these are thinly stretched and could be easily cut off if taken- especially in the south between the Chinese heartland and the Tang controlled- Vietnamese boarder. Slavery played an important role in the kingdom’s economy. Nanzhao society advocated for a standing army with a strict system of military law. By the end of the regime, the armed forces had as many as 100,000 experienced troops. Looting was often a reason for fighting neighboring tribes. Considerable numbers of enemy soldiers would be captured.

In 846, Nanzhao raided the southern Tang circuit of Annam (northern Vietnam.) Nanzhao stirred up anti-Tang rebels the area and attacked Annam again in 862 and  863, occupying it for three years. In 869, Nanzhao laid siege to Chengdu again but failed to capture it. By 873, Nanzhao had been expelled from Sichuan, and retreated back to Yunnan. From this point on, the Nanzhao Kingdom slowly declined.

SUCCESSORS OF NANZHAO

The end of the kingdom would came suddenly. In 902, Zheng Maisi, the qingpingguan (清平官, essentially the"Primier Minister") of Nanzhao, murdered the infant king of Nanzhao, and usurped the throne. This sudden betrayal abruptly ended the kingdom and plunged the realm into anarchy. The rest of the royal clan was massacred. In the next 35 years, three dynasties rose and fell in quick succession. Da Changhe (902–928), Da Tianxing (928–929) and Da Yining (929–937). The realm wide anarchy was ended only when Duan Siping, one of the Jeidushi 节度使- or military generals led a coalition of some 37 tribes and restored order to the region. He was enthroned in 937 and founded the new Kingdom of Dali.

THE NEW KING, THE NEW KINGDOM

The name of Dali meant "The Great Truth" or "The Great Administration." It would rapidly take over nearly all of the lands that formerly encompassed by Nanzhao. Although like its predecessor, Dali was a strong kingdom both militarily and in administration, behaviorally, it was a different sort of power altogether. Where as Nanzhao had devoted nearly its entire existence in war and raids, the Dali Kingdom was much more inward looking and preferred peaceful trading and religious contemplation rather than endless wars. What's most surprising- was perhaps how it would also became one of the key friends of both the Chinese as well as the Tibetans, and in its entire existence cultivate a strong mutual friendship between all three powers in the region through vital trade and support.

Restorer: the general Duan Siping emerged as the victor in Yunnan after 35 years of anarchy and war had wracked the Nanzhao kingdom. Although ethnically he was probably a Bai, he claimed Han Chinese descent. He and his successors would cultivate friendly relationships with both Song China and the various Tibetan warlords- uniting all three people for centuries through trade and mutual reliance. Where as Nanzhao warred and destroyed, Dali facilitated trade and looked inward.

Follow us next chapter as we examine the almost mythical

Kingdom of Dali, which reigned for some three centuries while nestled behind the clouds

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